Templatic in[t]ruders in Hebrew

This paper aims to examine the noun inflection for gender/definiteness and number in the Kara language. which is spoken by approximately 1,000 people. The data for this study were collected using communicative events and elicitation. Kara nouns distinguish gender/definiteness and number. Kara has two-way gender distinctions for animates: the masculine and the feminine, and it is semantically motivated. Some inanimate Kara nouns are feminine by default, and some are masculine by default. The inanimate noun that is feminine by default may sometimes take the masculine gender marker to express smallness or less importance. On the contrary, an inanimate noun that is masculine by default may take the feminine gender marker to refer to largeness or more importance. One of thefascinating features of the Kara nouns is that it uses feminine gender to express augmentative value, but it uses masculine gender to express diminutive semantic value. The masculine and feminine gender are marked by the suffixes -(t)a and -(to)no respectively. Kara also uses different lexical items to denote feminine and masculine gender, and these lexical items or nouns particularly refer to human entities. Gender and definiteness markers are portmanteau in Kara; in other words, the gender markers mark both gender and definiteness simultaneously. Indefiniteness, contrary, is not morphologically marked. Unlike general nouns, the particular noun forms show the number distinction-. singular and plural. Both animate and inanimate nouns use the suffix -na or -a to mark pluralnumbers; however, the singular number is not morphologically marked. Besides, modifiers agree in number with their head.

Five experiments were conducted to investigate the interference between grammatical gender and false memory in German. In Experiment 1 (N=42), the feminine grammatical gender category served as the grammatical gender of the targets and lures, while the masculine occurred only in the lure words. The occurrence of feminine gender in both the targets and lures resulted in lower proportions of correct rejections than when targets were feminine and lures were masculine. This indicates that grammatical gender was processed as a cue to reject the lures with two-gender condition in the recognition tasks. In Experiment 2 (N=90), a three-gender manipulation was introduced, in which two of the three grammatical genders in German served as the grammatical gender of the targets and lures, while the other one was used only as lures. Neither the combination of feminine and neuter, nor of feminine and masculine, resulted in higher proportions of correct rejections on the gender-unrelated lures in comparison with gender-related lures. By contrast, the combination of masculine and neuter caused more correct rejections on the feminine lures than both against the masculine and against the neuter lures. It is claimed that the similarity of grammatical gender between masculine and neuter did not facilitate identifying the masculine and the neuter items. This might be because of the likelihood that the masculine and the neuter words use the same indefinite articles (i.e. ein) or definite articles in, for example, dative (i.e. dem). Thus, Experiment 3 and 4 extended the design of Experiment 2 with determiners. In Experiment 3 (N=45), nouns were displayed with definite articles; by contrast, in Experiment 4 (N=45), pseudo articles, which had the same gender-marked endings as the indefinite articles used by different genders, were presented with nouns. It showed that the advantages of gender unrelated lures found in Experiment 2 disappeared in Experiment 3, but were found again in Experiment 4. The definite articles used in Experiment 3 resulted in a more difficult task; therefore, the grammatical gender effect was inhibited. However, the pseudo articles facilitated distinguishing the feminine noun phrases from both the masculine and neuter noun phrases. Grammatical genders were considered to be used as a memory cue, connected with appropriate articles that can be activated during recognition tasks. Using bare nouns and nouns with pseudo-article noun phrases, false memory caused by gender cues occurred in two conditions: (1) the targets and lures are of the same grammatical gender; (2) the masculine and the neuter words are used as the materials, when one of those acted as targets and the other as lures. In addition, Eye-tracking was used in Experiment 5 (N=30) and showed that feminine targets caused fewer hits than either masculine or neuter words in the recognition task in a forced choice paradigm. Longer fixation times were found for both feminine targets and lures, than for either masculine or neuter items. By contrast, hits of masculine targets were as frequent as those for neuter targets. Because of this it is assumed that feminine grammatical gender is more easily processed as a gender cue in the recognition task. In the cases of stimuli that included either masculine or neuter words, grammatical gender information was not as easy as a cue. Recognition tasks were influenced mainly by semantic category effect, so that lures, which were only grammatically gender related but semantically unrelated to the target, were more easily rejected. Targets were fixated for a shorter period of time and received more hits. In the case of stimuli that included feminine words, gender cue is more easily used during the recognition tasks. Lures were influenced by grammatical gender effect and therefore became difficult to be rejected. Targets were fixated on longer and were more frequently confused with lures. The proportion of hits became low for feminine targets. In other words, recent results indicated that feminine gender was more easily used as a memory cue when compared with masculine and neuter.

In Omotic, grammatical gender that is expressed through agreement between associated words and equally affecting animate and inanimate nouns is not common. Rather, the system of gender-marking in Omotic mostly involves direct-marking on the noun and it is semantically determined, i.e., the system classifies (large) animate nouns according to their biological gender and leaves inanimate nouns unmarked or marks all inanimate nouns categorically as either masculine or feminine. In Zargulla feminine and masculine gender is morphologically distinguished in the following areas: in verbal subject-agreement marking, definiteness marking in nouns and in third person singular pronouns. Moreover, Zargulla has two copula markers: -tte and -tta, the distribution of which partly corresponds to masculine and feminine gender respectively. The focus of the present contribution is on these two morphemes. We show that the gender-marking role of the two morphemes is diminishing and that they are grammaticalizing into two different discourse-functional morphemes.

Empirical Investigations of the MMPI-2 Gender-Masculine and Gender-Feminine Scales

Objective of the article is to determine the similarity and difference in the expression of nouns’ gender category in the French and Russian languages, to indicate the way and rules of revealing gender category based on lexical, grammatical and comparative analyses. Applied methods : Lexical, grammatical and comparative analyses, which allow determining the peculiarity of the expression of nouns’ gender category in the French and Russian languages; to consider the techniques of the formation of nouns’ feminine gender in the French language, the formation of nouns’ masculine, feminine, neuter genders in the Russian language. Results . The similarity of the expression of nouns’ gender category is revealed by manifesting the word-formation suffixes, substantial adjectives and participles, words of different basis, sequence of mutual gender words; and the differences revealing the absence of neuter and common genders in the French language, the presence of homonyms where gender determines the nouns’ meaning. Conclusion . The article deals with the expression of nouns’ gender category, the formation of nouns’ feminine gender in the French language, the formation of nouns’ masculine, feminine, neuter genders in the Russian language, the affix word-formation. The problem of vocabulary’s feminization in the French language is also considered. The list of homonyms is given too where gender determines the nouns’ meaning. The study of the nouns’ gender category is emphasized as actual.

Research on grammatical gender processing has generally assumed that grammatical gender can be treated as a uniform construct, resulting in a body of literature in which different gender classes are collapsed into single analysis. The present work reviews linguistic, psycholinguistic, and neurolinguistic research on grammatical gender from different methodologies and across different profiles of Spanish speakers. Specifically, we examine distributional asymmetries between masculine and feminine grammatical gender, the resulting biases in gender assignment, and the consequences of these assignment strategies on gender expectancy and processing. We discuss the implications of the findings for the design of future gender processing studies and, more broadly, for our understanding of the potential differences in the processing reflexes of grammatical gender classes within and across languages.

This study aims to determine how the mathematics communication profile of junior high school students in solving statistical problems based on gender differences. This research is descriptive qualitative. The triangulation used in this research is the triangulation of techniques / methods. The results showed that on indicators linking everyday language with mathematics language, students with masculine gender got lower results than students with feminine gender by a difference of 16.7%. Meanwhile, for the second indicator, namely reflecting / describing mathematical statements in tabular form, students with masculine gender were superior to students with feminine gender by a difference of 16.7% as well. Furthermore, for indicators of understanding, evaluating and interpreting mathematical ideas in solving problems in writing, students with feminine gender are superior to students with masculine gender by a difference of 33.37%. for the last indicator, namely concluding the answers according to the questions, students with masculine gender get lower results again than students with feminine gender by a difference of 50%.

Abstract. The present study examined the validity of two Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) scales - Gender Masculine (GM) and Gender Feminine (GF) - in discriminating between the gender types - Masculine (High GM/Low GF); Feminine (Low GM/High GF); Androgynous (High GM/High GF) and Undifferentiated (Low GM/Low GF), in cross-national clinical samples. The study consisted of 70 Singaporean and 107 Australian psychiatric patients. Significant pairwise comparisons were found for Undifferentiated-Stereotyped Masculinity, Undifferentiated-Androgynous, Stereotyped Femininity-Stereotyped Masculinity, and Stereotyped Femininity-Androgynous on both measures of psychological well-being for both countries, but not for comparisons between the Stereotyped Masculinity-Androgynous and Undifferentiated-Stereotyped Femininity categories. Independent dimensions of masculinity and femininity - the GM and GF scales - were, therefore, found to distinguish between two of the four sex-type categories on measures of psychological well-being. The current findings indicate that the GM and GF scales seem effective in differentiating between Masculine and Feminine traits, however they seem less effective in differentiating between the four gender types.

Framing is a process of generating meaning by utilizing language. After reading positive or negative framing, this study aims to determine whether there are differences in tax compliance decisions between feminine gender taxpayers and masculine gender taxpayers. Prospect Theory becomes the basis for explaining how framing can affect individual choices. Sampled in this study is a student of the Accounting study program at Khairun University who has passed the Taxation course. The sampling technique used in this study was purposive sampling, using an experimental research model with a 2x2 factorial design. The analysis used by the researchers was the Mann-Whitney U test to test the hypothesis. This study's results show a difference in tax compliance between taxpayers who are given positive and negative framing. There is a difference between the Taxpayer with the masculine gender and the feminine gender after being given negative framing. However, there is no difference between taxpayers of feminine gender and masculine gender after being given positive framing. The results obtained from interaction testing also proved the influence of the difference between positive and negative framing, or masculine and feminine gender, on tax compliance.

Grammatical gender has been shown to provide natural gender information about human referents. However, due to formal and conceptual differences between masculine and feminine forms, it remains an open question whether these gender categories influence the processing of person information to the same degree. Experiment 1 compared the semantic content of masculine and feminine grammatical gender by combining masculine and feminine role names with either gender congruent or incongruent referents (e.g., Dieser Lehrer [masc.]/Diese Lehrerin [fem.] ist mein Mann/meine Frau; This teacher is my husband/my wife). Participants rated sentences in terms of correctness and customariness. In Experiment 2, in addition to ratings reading times were recorded to assess processing more directly. Both experiments were run in German. Sentences with grammatically feminine role names and gender incongruent referents were rated as less correct and less customary than those with masculine forms and incongruent referents. Combining a masculine role name with an incongruent referent slowed down reading to a greater extent than combining a feminine role name with an incongruent referent. Results thus specify the differential effects of masculine and feminine grammatical gender in denoting human referents.

It is not an easy task for a Lithuanian, who is not a native speaker of French, to learn French nouns with their inherent grammatical gender, which is expressed by suffixes and articles non-existent in L1. The understanding of the category of gender of French L2 noun phrases is a complex and time consuming process. The data of the text corpus proves that students whose French language level is B1 have not fully comprehended the grammatical category of gender on all levels of linguistic competence.
 As demonstrated by the results of the present investigation, a student often does not assign a fixed gender. When in doubt, he/she eventually decides on the masculine gender as a universal choice, which in French is less codified than the feminine gender and is interpreted as the main gender from which other forms such as the feminine gender and the plural form are derived. Apparently, the cause of such confusion lies in the system of the French language itself. Students tend to assign the gender of the noun by semantic analogy, the analogy of form or meaning with the students’ first language or from a well-known word in L2; sometimes other languages such as English come into play. As regards the coordination of determiners and adjectives, the determiner coordination tends to cause fewer problems than adjectives. The latter is mostly used in the masculine form, regardless of the noun gender. Despite a number of nominal gender-related problems, a substantial number of nouns have been assigned the correct gender, as demonstrated by collocates agreeing in gender with respective nouns.

In modern Russian scientific literature, one may find usage of term “allele” in both masculine and feminine grammatical gender. Existence of “proper” usage is debatable and hence became a topic of the given paper. History of term in Russian language and grammatical bases of its gender are briefly reviewed. Basing on statistics of usage of this word in Russian genetic journals, one may conclude that its usage in feminine gender tends to decline and is attributed almost exclusively to Leningrad and Saint-Petersburg scientific schools. The word “allele” in feminine gender more suits the existing tradition of interlingual transition of words ending with «-el». Nevertheless, the modern Russian genetic literature obviously prefers using this term in masculine gender.

Summary The interdisciplinary research (philology, typology, morphology, phonology) presented here explores the role of gender in the meaning and morphology of Coptic nouns. Coptic has a predominantly grammatical gender system, albeit with a niche for semantically based gender assignment. The gender system marks a three-way semantic contrast between a [male] versus a [female] versus an [unspecified] gender value, even where the morphology draws only a two-way distinction between grammatical masculine and feminine gender. By integrating quantitative data and morphophonological analysis, we shall argue that masculine gender is morphologically unmarked. Although no discrete morpheme can be identified, feminine gender is always morphologically marked on nouns. Masculine and feminine nouns are distinguished in terms of their templatic structure, which interacts in complex ways with vowel distributions, stress assignment, and noun class.

Summary : Occupational self-efficacy as a function of grammatical gender in French The participants of this study, two hundred fifty French pupils aged fourteen and fifteen years, had to estimate their degree of self-efficacy toward various occupations. According to the experimental condition, occupations were presented only with the male grammatical gender [e.g., enseignant] or with the feminine grammatical gender [e.g., enseignant(e)]. Results obtained in this study indicate that, on average, pupils reported significantly more self-efficacy when occupations were presented with the feminine grammatical gender. Implications of this result are discussed with regard to the lack of the feminine grammatical gender in French for the most prestigious occupations. Keys words : Androcentric bias, grammatical gender, self-efficacy.

Aims Sex refers to genetic and biological characteristics, whereas gender reflects psychosocial norms, roles and behaviors. Sex differences in new-onset heart failure are well described, but gender differences in new-onset heart failure with preserved (HFpEF) and reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (HFrEF) are unknown. Methods A total of 6830 participants (50.3% women, mean age of 54 years) from the Prevention of Renal and Vascular End-Stage Disease (PREVEND) observational Dutch cohort were enrolled in the study. Gender-related characteristics were assessed using self-administered questionnaires. LASSO regression analysis selected the psychosocial variables related to sex, whose coefficient estimates were used to calculate the gender-related scores for each subject [1–2]. The participants were grouped by sex and further analyzed according to tertiles of the gender-related score. Competing-risk regression analysis was used to assess whether sex and gender were associated with new-onset HFrEF (LVEF ≤40%) and HFpEF (LVEF ≥50%). Results Women with predominantly masculine gender had lower BMI, were more often Caucasian and had higher total cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels than women with a predominantly feminine gender. Men with predominantly feminine gender were less often Caucasian with lower total cholesterol and HDL cholesterol levels than men with a predominantly masculine gender. During a median follow-up of 8.3 years, 227 (3.3%) subjects were diagnosed with heart failure (57.3% HFrEF and 43.7% HFpEF). In the total population including both men and women, feminine gender was significantly and independently associated with a higher risk of new-onset HFpEF compared with masculine gender (HR per 10 point: 1.17, 95% CI: 1.06–1.30; p=0.003). However, sex was not associated with new-onset HFpEF (HR: 1.09, 95% CI: 0.73–1.62; p=0.670). Separately in men, feminine gender was associated with a higher risk of new-onset HFpEF (HR: 1.37, 95% CI: 1.06–1.78; p=0.017), but not in women (HR: 1.13, 95% CI: 0.90–1.41; p=0.310). Conclusions Gender and sex are different constructs and feminine gender was associated with an increased risk of new-onset HFpEF, whereas sex was not associated with new-onset HFpEF. Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding sources: Foundation. Main funding source(s): Dutch Kidney Foundation