Temperature changes and agricultural performance linkage: Evidence from Africa

Earlier research largely ignored the effects of climate change on the growth of agricultural total factor productivity (TFP) in Africa. This study shows how climate inputs impact TFP growth in addition to other productivity growth indicators and metrics, as well as how they can impact overall input efficiency as productivity drivers. We use a panel of 42 African nations from 1999 to 2019 and a nonparametric data envelopment analysis-Malmquist technique. The non-parametric analysis revealed that the average growth rate of the non-climate-induced TFP estimates was 1.9%, while the average growth rate of the climate-induced TFP estimates was 2.4%. Accounting for temperature and precipitation separately, TFP grew by 2.3% on average. This growth rate (2.3%) is slightly less than the combined effect of temperature and precipitation (2.4%) but higher than the typical TFP growth rate (1.9%) that ignores climate variables, indicating that TFP growth in African agriculture risks being underestimated when climate inputs are ignored. We also find the distribution of the climate effects to vary across regions. In northern Africa, for example, the temperature-induced TFP growth rates were negative due to rising temperature in the region. Evidence from the decomposed TFP estimates indicates that climate variables also influence productivity determinants. However, technology improvement is fundamental to mitigating the effects of extreme weather inputs on TFP growth in Africa's agriculture. As a result, a few policy suggestions are provided to help policymakers deal with the effects of climate change on TFP growth in Africa's agriculture and ensure food security. The study advocated for a reevaluation of the climate–agriculture effect in order to fully comprehend the role of climate factors and their contributions to agricultural TFP growth in Africa.

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to examine the connections of agricultural productivity, access to credit and farm size in Africa using Ghana as a case study.Design/methodology/approach– The paper employs mixed methods – quantitative and qualitative strategies for data collection and analyses. The hierarchical competitive model was used for the quantitative analyses supplemented with qualitative analyses using key informant interviews, focus group discussions and household case studies.Findings– The results show that there is significant relationship between credit from formal and informal sources and agricultural productivity. Thus access to formal and informal credit increases farm household agricultural productivity by about 0.10 (p=0.05) and 0.45 (p< 0.01), respectively. The quadratic terms of formal and informal credit as well as farm size were found to significantly influence agricultural productivity. The implication of this is that the relationships between formal credit, informal credit and farm size on one hand and agricultural productivity on the other are non-linear in nature. The interactions of formal credit with informal credit; informal credit with farm size; and formal and informal credit with farm size have significant relationships with agricultural productivity. The amount of remittance received by farm households has negative and insignificant influence on agricultural productivity. Market access is also an insignificant determinant of agricultural productivity in Ghana.Originality/value– This paper provides new insights on whether the scale of production (farm size as proxy) and access to financial services (credit as a proxy) matter in promoting agricultural productivity in Africa using Ghana as a case study. Thus the paper is of relevance to policy-makers and practitioners in Africa and Ghana in particular who are seeking to make informed policy decisions on effectively incorporating credit provision into the agricultural transformation agenda of the continent.

This study examines the relationship between renewable energy consumption, trade openness and agricultural productivity in Africa. Specifically, the study examines the intensity of the type of renewable energy consumed in Africa; investigates the effect of renewable energy consumption on agricultural productivity in Africa and analyse the effect of trade openness on agricultural productivity via the consumption of renewable energy in Africa. In achieving this, the System Generalized Methods of Moments (SYSGMM) estimation technique is employed while also checking the robustness of the result using the cross section augmented distributed lag model estimation technique. The result from the study shows that hydro and low carbon type of renewable energy accounts for over 90% of the renewable energy consumed in Africa between 2000 and 2020. Also, the result from the study shows that there is a positive and significant impact of renewable energy consumption on agricultural productivity in Africa. Trade openness and agricultural productivity have a positive relationship as trade openness facilitates the importation of machines that uses renewable energy in the agricultural value chain system. Thus, encouraging policy actions and the intensification of the use of renewable energy improves agricultural productivity in Africa. At regional level and in the long run, renewable energy consumption has a positive and significant effect on agricultural productivity only in Central and Southern region of Africa. Also, at the regional level, trade globalization has a positive and significant impact on agricultural productivity by enhancing the deployment of machines that uses renewable energy in the agricultural productivity in Central and Southern regions of Africa in the long run, and in the Eastern and Western regions of Africa in the short run. The use of renewable energy in the agricultural value-added space requires the deployment of new and innovative equipment which are mostly imported into Africa just like the processing and irrigation equipment; and these guarantees increase in agricultural productivity and efficiency. There is the need for respective governments of African economies and international development partners to provide finance for farmers which encouragesimportation of renewable energy enabled agricultural machineries used for processing, irrigation, packaging, refrigerating, transport system, storage, and handling value chains to guarantee improved agricultural productivity. Keywords: Agricultural Productivity; Renewable Energy Consumption; Trade Openness.

Africa is classified as the continent with the highest threat caused by a changing earth climate. This threat is a result of interaction between diverse stressing factors which are already indicated in local ecosystems. These climatic effects are more visible in Africa than on any other continent or regions in the world. The interactions of climate change and anthropogenic caused environmental influences are specifically distinct like fire clearance, overfishing, and food security. Environmental and agricultural resources are fundamentals for social, economic, and ecologic development and essential for African countries. With increased interferences in the ecological balance of ecosystems, booming productions are one of the major and most serious effects on soil degradation. With indicators like soil wetness, pH, water-holding-capacity, soil fertility, drought etc. the productivity of different soils can be evaluated. With this evaluation, it will be possible to estimate the economic efficiency, and therefore concrete market potentials. Against this background, the impact of soil degradation will be investigated on examples of agricultural production in Africa. The importance to understand the market relevance and key markets in the agricultural sector is essential for the success of agricultural production in Africa.

Abstract
Africa’s agriculture, largely rain-dependent, is exceptionally vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, with projected shifts in temperature and precipitation patterns posing significant challenges for crop production, water availability, and food security. This study investigates the potential of two Solar Radiation Modification (SRM) approaches, Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (Gsulfur) and Solar Dimming (Gsolar) in modifying precipitation dynamics and agro-climatic indices across the African continent under future climate scenarios. Utilizing datasets from the CMIP6 and GeoMIP6, we analyse alterations in key agro-climatic indices under SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5 scenarios. The results showed that while both Gsolar and Gsulfur demonstrate the capacity to attenuate temperature increases associated with global warming, their influence on precipitation is heterogeneous, with significant potential for both beneficial and adverse impacts. SAI may enhance rainfall in Sahara (SAH) and North Africa (NAF) while it reduces rainfall in the Central Africa (CAF) and Central East Africa (CEAF) region, thereby introducing potential risks for agricultural productivity and water availability. SAI and SD contribute to the higher frequency of wet days under the two emission scenarios but are likely to reduce total annual rainfall and heavy rainfall which can complicate water resources. This study further examines how growing season length (GSL) in Africa changes under SSP245 and SSP585 scenarios. The impact of G6sulfur (Gsolar) interventions relative to SSP2-4.5 may leads to a GSL decrease about 5-15 (1-16) days over the region while an increase of similar magnitude is expected over Madagascar, MDG (CEAF). With higher emission, the impact of G6solar intervention relative to SSP5-8.5 may lead to an increase of about 5 -15 days over the region except but a decrease over MDG, Southeast Africa (SEAF) and CEAF. The projected trends in agroclimatic indices were found to be similar under GHG and geoengineering at CAF, CEAF, and SWAF during growing season period. In these regions, CDD declined between 2070 and 2099 while CWD and PRCPTOT increased. This has implications for the economies based on agricultural production in Africa. Our study has helped improve our understanding of how global warming and SRM approaches can impact agricultural production in Africa and inform policymakers about the trade-offs between SAI and other GHG adaptation strategies.
Keywords: Africa, Agriculture, Climate Change, Food Security, Geoengineering, Growing Season Length (GSL).




Agricultural Productivity in Africa: Trends, Patterns, and Determinants presents updated and new analyses of land, labor, and total productivity trends in African agriculture. It brings together analyses of a unique mix of data sources and evaluations of public policies and development projects to recommend ways to increase agricultural productivity in Africa. This book is timely in light of the recent and ongoing growth recovery across the continent. The good news is that agricultural productivity in Africa increased at a moderate rate between 1961 and 2012, although there are variations in the rate of growth in land, labor, and total factor productivities depending on country and region. Differences in input use and capital intensities in agricultural production in the various farming systems and agricultural productivity zones also affect advancements in technology. One conclusion based on the book’s research findings derives from the substantial spatial variation in agricultural productivity. For areas with similar agricultural productivity growth trends and factors, what works well in one area can be used as the basis for formulating best-fit, location-specific agricultural policies, investments, and interventions in similar areas. This finding along with others will be of particular interest to policy- and decisionmakers.

Adaptation to climate change in Ethiopia and South Africa: options and constraints

Decomposition of technical efficiency in agricultural production in Africa into transient and persistent technical efficiency under heterogeneous technologies

Increasing agricultural productivity in Africa will have important impacts not only on the agricultural sector but also can be a catalyst for industrialization through agro-processing. Irrigation, therefore, has a crucial role in enhancing food security and reducing hunger in the region. Numerous countries in Africa consider water and irrigation management as a key factor in improving their food security and ensuring access to drinking-water for their populations. Fortunately, there is evidence from a number of places on the continent where the adoption of efficient irrigation systems has led to higher productivity among smallholder farmers. While the appropriate interventions for the diverse agro-ecological zones of sub-Saharan Africa are known, adoption among smallholder farmers still remains a challenge. Digital technology opens the vast untapped potential for farmers, investors, and entrepreneurs to improve the efficiency of food production and consumption in Africa. From precision farming to an efficient food supply chain, technology could bring major economic, social, and environmental benefits. Increasing investment and involvement of the private sector is crucial for the up-scaling of irrigation technologies. Indeed, the sheer optimism across the startup ecosystem is that extreme hunger can be cured in Africa, in this generation, by significantly transforming the industry that employs most of its citizens. This paper draws on lessons from past trends in the irrigation industry and emphasizes on novel directions to ensure that farmers, as well as other stakeholders reap the benefits associated with improved technologies. Keywords: food self-sufficiency, irrigation development, small-holder farms, sub-Sahara Africa, sustainability DOI: 10.25165/j.ijabe.20201303.4397 Citation: Darko R O, Liu J P, Yuan S Q, Sam-Amoah L K, Yan H F. Irrigated agriculture for food self-sufficiency in the sub-Saharan African region. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2020; 13(3): 1–12.

Increasing agricultural productivity in Africa will have important impacts not only on the agricultural sector but also can be a catalyst for industrialization through agro-processing. Irrigation, therefore, has a crucial role in enhancing food security and reducing hunger in the region. Numerous countries in Africa consider water and irrigation management as a key factor in improving their food security and ensuring access to drinking-water for their populations. Fortunately, there is evidence from a number of places on the continent where the adoption of efficient irrigation systems has led to higher productivity among smallholder farmers. While the appropriate interventions for the diverse agro-ecological zones of sub-Saharan Africa are known, adoption among smallholder farmers still remains a challenge. Digital technology opens the vast untapped potential for farmers, investors, and entrepreneurs to improve the efficiency of food production and consumption in Africa. From precision farming to an efficient food supply chain, technology could bring major economic, social, and environmental benefits. Increasing investment and involvement of the private sector is crucial for the up-scaling of irrigation technologies. Indeed, the sheer optimism across the startup ecosystem is that extreme hunger can be cured in Africa, in this generation, by significantly transforming the industry that employs most of its citizens. This paper draws on lessons from past trends in the irrigation industry and emphasizes on novel directions to ensure that farmers, as well as other stakeholders reap the benefits associated with improved technologies. Keywords: food self-sufficiency, irrigation development, small-holder farms, sub-Sahara Africa, sustainability DOI: 10.25165/j.ijabe.20201303.4397 Citation: Darko R O, Liu J P, Yuan S Q, Sam-Amoah L K, Yan H F. Irrigated agriculture for food self-sufficiency in the sub-Saharan African region. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2020; 13(3): 1–12.

The CGIAR (Consultative Groups for International Agricultural Research, www.cgiar.org) deploys agricultural biotechnology innovations to improve crops’ and livestock’s productivity and quality in Africa. CGIAR centers have played a pivotal role in kick-starting agbiotech among NARS partners in Africa through various contributions towards building human resource and infrastructure as well as providing access to genomic resources of major African crops and developing biotech varieties and associated biosafety regulatory systems. Genomic resources such as molecular markers, genetic linkage maps, transcriptome, annotated genome sequences, which are extremely valuable for molecular breeding were limited or non-existent for a large number of African staple crops until recently. Modern breeding schemes aimed at accelerating genetic gain, such as genome selection (GS), marker-assisted recurrent selection (MARS), and marker-assisted back-crossing (MABC) are underway for many African crops. In an effort to deploy molecular breeding by NARS, genotyping services and Web-based Integrated Breeding Platform (IBP, https://www.integratedbreeding.net/) providing crop information and analytical tools to help design and conduct marker-assisted breeding experiments have been developed. With regard to plant protection, CGIAR centers have played a significant role in the development and application of molecular tools for the characterization, detection and diagnosis of disease causing agents through development of simple and accurate tools and procedures. Harnessing advances in biotechnology tools and increasing availability of genomes of pathogens and pests helped CGIAR centers and partners to address the complexity of pathogen diversity, germplasm evaluation, and monitoring of mycotoxins in food and feed samples as well as efficient assays for simultaneous detection of multiple pathogens. Genetic engineering has been applied to improvement of priority traits where conventional non-GM approaches have little promise. Several biotech products are now in the pipeline with anticipated release time in the coming few years. Examples include transgenic banana plants that have exhibited strong resistance to banana Xanthomonas wilt (BXW), Nematode resistant plantain, virus and weevil resistant sweetpotato, late blight resistant potato, and cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) resistant cassava. Application of additional biotechnological tools such as doubled haploid technologies, next-generation sequencing based applications, and genome editing technologies are poised to further accelerate the impact of biotechnology in enhancing agricultural productivity in Africa.

ABSTRACTClimate change and political instability have implications for food and agricultural production. Africa is often described as one of the most vulnerable continents to the impacts of climate change, political instability, and conflicts. However, empirical evidence on the impacts of climate change, political instability, and violent conflicts on food and agricultural production is scanty and mixed. A better understanding of the impacts of climate change and political instability on food and agricultural production on the continent is needed to achieve some of the sustainable development goals. This paper investigates the impacts of climate change and political instability on food and agricultural production in Africa. The study relied on panel data from 43 countries spanning a period of 20 years (2000–2019). The data were obtained from the World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal, World Development Indicators, and FAOSTAT databases. Using the panel autoregressive distributed lag model, we find that the annual maximum number of consecutive dry days, temperature, and rainfall data significantly decreased the food production index, livestock production index, cereal production, and crop production index in the long run. Also, we find that total greenhouse gas emissions significantly increased the food production index, livestock production index, cereal production, total fisheries production, and crop production index in the long run. Political stability significantly increased the livestock production index, cereal production, and total fisheries production in the long run, while employment in agriculture significantly increased the food production index, crop production index, and total fisheries production in the long run. We conclude that climate change and political stability impact agricultural production in Africa.

PurposeEmpirical evidence abounds on the individual effect of financial development and remittances on agricultural production, but little is known about their complementary role, especially in the context of African countries. This study fills this knowledge gap by examining the moderating role of financial development in the agricultural production–remittance nexus in Africa.Design/methodology/approachDifferent measures of financial development were employed, and the panel quantile regression model was adopted to analyse panel data of 33 African countries covering the period 2005–2020.FindingsThe results indicate that the effects of financial development on agricultural production vary across quantiles, and the dynamics of agricultural production are sensitive to the choice of financial development indicator. Nevertheless, financial development and remittances are highly indispensable for improved agricultural production in Africa, as financial development complements the positive effect of remittances on agricultural production.Practical implicationsAfrican countries need to strengthen their financial sector to facilitate the effective mobilization of remittances and other financial resources for investment in the agricultural sector and the improvement of the sector’s productivity.Originality/valueTo the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that documents empirical evidence on the complementary role of financial development and remittances on agricultural production in Africa.

Purpose This paper seeks to examine the role and obstacles of financial aid in elevating the value of agricultural production within the framework of China–Africa agricultural cooperation. It endeavors to assess the efficacy and challenges of Chinese financial assistance to Africa and its broader significance for the global diffusion of successful economic practices in China–Africa agricultural collaboration. Design/methodology/approach The methodology adopted in this study entails the construction of an unbalanced panel econometric model, utilizing data from 29 African countries over the period from 2000 to 2020. This approach facilitates a comprehensive analysis of the influence of Chinese financial aid on agricultural development across African nations. Findings Empirical research indicates that China’s financial assistance loans have significantly enhanced the value of agricultural production in Africa. Furthermore, their impact exhibits industrial and regional heterogeneity, and there is a synergistic effect with China’s agricultural technology demonstration centers. The study also highlights several challenges currently faced by China’s financial assistance to Africa, including insufficient project sustainability, limited financial resources and underdeveloped market infrastructure in African countries. Originality/value The originality of this paper lies in its focus on China–Africa agricultural cooperation practices. By integrating the FAOSTAT and CLA databases, it constructs an unbalanced panel econometric model to empirically analyze the impact of China’s financial assistance to Africa on agricultural production in Africa. Furthermore, it discusses the practical challenges faced by China–Africa agricultural cooperation. Based on this, combined with quantitative and qualitative analysis, it proposes financial assistance strategies to promote the value enhancement of agricultural production in Africa.

Agriculture production is directly dependent on climate change and weather. Possible changes in temperature, precipitation and CO2 concentration are expected to significantly impact crop growth and ultimately we lose our crop productivity and indirectly affect the sustainable food availability issue. The overall impact of climate change on worldwide food production is considered to be low to moderate with successful adaptation and adequate irrigation. Climate change has a serious impact on the availability of various resources on the earth especially water, which sustains life on this planet. The global food security situation and outlook remains delicately imbalanced amid surplus food production and the prevalence of hunger, due to the complex interplay of social, economic, and ecological factors that mediate food security outcomes at various human and institutional scales. Weather aberration poses complex challenges in terms of increased variability and risk for food producers and the energy and water sectors. Changes in the biosphere, biodiversity and natural resources are adversely affecting human health and quality of life. Throughout the 21st century, India is projected to experience warming above global level. India will also begin to experience more seasonal variation in temperature with more warming in the winters than summers. Longevity of heat waves across India has extended in recent years with warmer night temperatures and hotter days, and this trend is expected to continue. Strategic research priorities are outlined for a range of sectors that underpin global food security, including: agriculture, ecosystem services from agriculture, climate change, international trade, water management solutions, the water-energy-food security nexus, service delivery to smallholders and women farmers, and better governance models and regional priority setting. There is a need to look beyond agriculture and invest in affordable and suitable farm technologies if the problem of food insecurity is to be addressed in a sustainable manner. Introduction Globally, agriculture is one of the most vulnerable sectors to climate change. This vulnerability is relatively higher in India in view of the large population depending on agriculture and poor coping capabilities of small and marginal farmers. Impacts of climate change pose a serious threat to food security. “Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (World Food Summit, 1996). This definition gives rise to four dimensions of food security: availability of food, accessibility (economically and physically), utilization (the way it is used and assimilated by the human body) and stability of these three dimensions. According to the United Nations, in 2015, there are still 836 million people in the world living in extreme poverty (less than USD1.25/day) (UN, 2015). And according to the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), at least 70 percent of the very poor live in rural areas, most of them depending partly (or completely) on agriculture for their livelihoods. It is estimated that 500 million smallholder farms in the developing world are supporting almost 2 billion people, and in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa these small farms produce about 80 percent of the food consumed. Climate change threatens to reverse the progress made so far in the fight against hunger and malnutrition. As highlighted by the assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change (IPCC), climate change augments and intensifies risks to food security for the most vulnerable countries and populations. Few of the major risks induced by climate change, as identified by IPCC have direct consequences for food security (IPCC, 2007). These are mainly to loss of rural livelihoods and income, loss of marine and coastal ecosystems, livelihoods loss of terrestrial and inland water ecosystems and food insecurity (breakdown of food systems). Rural farmers, whose livelihood depends on the use of natural resources, are likely to bear the brunt of adverse impacts. Most of the crop simulation model runs and experiments under elevated temperature and carbon dioxide indicate that by 2030, a 3-7% decline in the yield of principal cereal crops like rice and wheat is likely in India by adoption of current production technologies. Global warming impacts growth, reproduction and yields of food and horticulture crops, increases crop water requirement, causes more soil erosion, increases thermal stress on animals leading to decreased milk yields and change the distribution and breeding season of fisheries. Fast changing climatic conditions, shrinking land, water and other natural resources with rapid growing population around the globe has put many challenges before us (Mukherjee, 2014). Food is going to be second most challenging issue for mankind in time to come. India will also begin to experience more seasonal variation in temperature with more warming in the winters than summers (Christensen et al., 2007). Climate change is posing a great threat to agriculture and food security in India and it's subcontinent. Water is the most critical agricultural input in India, as 55% of the total cultivated areas do not have irrigation facilities. Currently we are able to secure food supplies under these varying conditions. Under the threat of climate variability, our food grain production system becomes quite comfortable and easily accessible for local people. India's food grain production is estimated to rise 2 per cent in 2020-21 crop years to an all-time high of 303.34 million tonnes on better output of rice, wheat, pulse and coarse cereals amid good monsoon rains last year. In the 2019-20 crop year, the country's food grain output (comprising wheat, rice, pulses and coarse cereals) stood at a record 297.5 million tonnes (MT). Releasing the second advance estimates for 2020-21 crop year, the agriculture ministry said foodgrain production is projected at a record 303.34 MT. As per the data, rice production is pegged at record 120.32 MT as against 118.87 MT in the previous year. Wheat production is estimated to rise to a record 109.24 MT in 2020-21 from 107.86 MT in the previous year, while output of coarse cereals is likely to increase to 49.36 MT from 47.75 MT. Pulses output is seen at 24.42 MT, up from 23.03 MT in 2019-20 crop year. In the non-foodgrain category, the production of oilseeds is estimated at 37.31 MT in 2020-21 as against 33.22 MT in the previous year. Sugarcane production is pegged at 397.66 MT from 370.50 MT in the previous year, while cotton output is expected to be higher at 36.54 million bales (170 kg each) from 36.07. This production figure seem to be sufficient for current population, but we need to improve more and more with vertical farming and advance agronomic and crop improvement tools for future burgeoning population figure under the milieu of climate change issue. Our rural mass and tribal people have very limited resources and they sometime complete depend on forest microhabitat. To order to ensure food and nutritional security for growing population, a new strategy needs to be initiated for growing of crops in changing climatic condition. The country has a large pool of underutilized or underexploited fruit or cereals crops which have enormous potential for contributing to food security, nutrition, health, ecosystem sustainability under the changing climatic conditions, since they require little input, as they have inherent capabilities to withstand biotic and abiotic stress. Apart from the impacts on agronomic conditions of crop productions, climate change also affects the economy, food systems and wellbeing of the consumers (Abbade, 2017). Crop nutritional quality become very challenging, as we noticed that, zinc and iron deficiency is a serious global health problem in humans depending on cereal-diet and is largely prevalent in low-income countries like Sub-Saharan Africa, and South and South-east Asia. We report inefficiency of modern-bred cultivars of rice and wheat to sequester those essential nutrients in grains as the reason for such deficiency and prevalence (Debnath et al., 2021). Keeping in mind the crop yield and nutritional quality become very daunting task to our food security issue and this can overcome with the proper and time bound research in cognizance with the environment. Threat and challenges In recent years, climate change has become a debatable issue worldwide. South Asia will be one of the most adversely affected regions in terms of impacts of climate change on agricultural yield, economic activity and trading policies. Addressing climate change is central for global future food security and poverty alleviation. The approach would need to implement strategies linked with developmental plans to enhance its adaptive capacity in terms of climate resilience and mitigation. Over time, there has been a visible shift in the global climate change initiative towards adaptation. Adaptation can complement mitigation as a cost-effective strategy to reduce climate change risks. The impact of climate change is projected to have different effects across societies and countries. Mitigation and adaptation actions can, if appropriately designed, advance sustainable development and equity both within and across countries and between generations. One approach to balancing the attention on adaptation and mitigation strategies is to compare the costs and benefits of both the strategies. The most imminent change is the increase in the atmospheric temperatures due to increase levels of GHGs (Green House Gases) i.e. carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) etc into the atmosphere. The global mean annual temperatures at the end of the 20th