Teleworking during the COVID-19 pandemic: a leader-member exchange perspective

Occupational stress is known for its negative outcomes on employee wellbeing, particularly various mental health disorders including anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Furthermore, the costs of occupational stress are increasing, with recent estimates to be approximately US$187 billion across the developed world, mainly due to productivity loss, healthcare, and medical costs. Despite this trend, research has found that not all stress is harmful; in fact, some stress leads to beneficial outcomes, including positive affect and work engagement. While the challenge-hindrance framework has been successful in categorising occupational stressors into job challenges and job hindrances in predictions of occupational wellbeing, it has been criticised for ignoring employee challenge and hindrance appraisals, as well as threat demands and appraisals as hypothesised by Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) transactional model of stress and coping. In addition, examinations of challenge, hindrance, and threat appraisals have rarely been integrated with future-oriented coping theory to help distinguish between proactive and preventive coping behaviours. Finally, trait resilience has gained much empirical attention to understand how trait resilience can influence the relationships between primary appraisals and work-related emotional outcomes over time. As such, this thesis addresses four key aims. The first aim is to provide evidence of the proposed three-factor challenge-hindrance-threat appraisal and demand framework. The second aim is to distinguish between two future-oriented coping behaviours: proactive and preventive coping, through their relationships with challenge, hindrance, and threat appraisal. The third aim is to integrate the transactional model with conservation of resources theory to provide support for the challenge appraisal-positive affect, hindrance appraisal-anger, and threat appraisal-anxiety relationships and how they are moderated by employee trait resilience. The final aim of this thesis is to provide further evidence of the feasibility of daily diary designs in stress research, by investigating both the daily and person-level relationships between job demands, appraisals, coping, and wellbeing. As this is a thesis by publication, three papers (studies) comprise this program of research. Study One aimed to validate the challenge-hindrance-threat framework and to test the direct and indirect effects of proactive and preventive coping on daily appraisals. The study utilised a student sample (N = 89) who completed a series of five daily diaries (N = 396 observations) focused on a common future stressor, which was a course assessment. Multilevel confirmatory factor analyses supported the three-factor challenge-hindrance-threat appraisal model and the dichotomous proactive/preventive coping model. Furthermore, a distinction between proactive and preventive coping was found as proactive coping moderated the relationships between days and challenge appraisal, and days and hindrance appraisal: as the stressor approached, challenge appraisal increased, and hindrance appraisal decreased when proactive coping was high. When preventive coping was high, both daily hindrance and threat appraisal decreased. Overall, the study supported the distinction between hindrance and threat appraisal and the proposed challenge appraisal-proactive coping and threat appraisal-preventive coping relationships. Study Two extended the findings of Study One to test a comprehensive model of the stress and coping process. Data were collected via daily diaries consisting of daily job demands, appraisals, proactive and preventive coping, as well as work engagement and work-related anxiety over five consecutive workdays, resulting in a total sample of 318 employees (N = 1,505 observations). While the beneficial effects of challenge appraisal and proactive coping in increasing work engagement and reducing work-related anxiety occurred, similar effects occurred between hindrance and threat appraisal. Red tape and conflicting demands were appraised as both hindering and threatening, and no indirect effects of hindrance and threat appraisal and preventive coping between job demands and outcome variables occurred, indicating a dominance of proactive coping over preventive coping in the stress process. Despite the mixed findings of this study, the results still provide insight into the complexity of the occupational stress and coping process and provides indications of the benefits of challenge appraisal and proactive coping in sustaining occupational wellbeing. Study Three combined the transactional model of stress (i.e., appraisals and emotion) with conservation of resources theory (i.e., trait resilience) to assess the various appraisal-emotion relationships hypothesised by the transactional model and how they are moderated by employee trait resilience. Utilising the same method and employee sample from Study Two (N = 318; N = 1, 502 observations), the findings supported the distinction of challenge, hindrance, and threat appraisal in predicting various work-related emotional outcomes. Challenge appraisal positively predicted work-related positive affect, hindrance appraisal positively predicted work-related anger, and threat appraisal positively predicted work-related anxiety, providing support for the distinction between hindrance and threat appraisal and emotional outcomes. While trait resilience increased work-related positive affect and reduced work-related anger and anxiety, the moderating effects of trait resilience on the appraisal-emotion relationships were mixed. Trait resilience only reduced the positive relationship between hindrance appraisal and anger when trait resilience was high, indicating other personal resources may influence the various appraisal-emotion relationships. However, this study provides support of the integration of the transactional model of stress and coping with conservation of resources theory, as well as the role of trait resilience in predicting emotional work-related wellbeing. Overall, the findings of this research make several important contributions to the occupational stress and coping literature. First, factor analyses in both samples provided support for the proposed three-factor challenge-hindrance-threat appraisal framework and the dichotomous proactive and preventive coping factor structure. Furthermore, this research highlights the proposed multi-dimensionality of the occupational stress and coping process through the challenge-hindrance-threat framework and future-oriented coping theory, particularly the influence of primary appraisal and future-oriented coping between job demands and occupational wellbeing outcomes. Finally, this research highlighted the feasibility of combining resource-based theories with the transactional model to better understand the various appraisal-emotion relationships over time. These findings can assist in the development of occupational interventions targeted at the employee or occupation-level, particularly minimising employees’ perceived hindrance and threat demands or by improving proactive coping behaviours to enhance occupational wellbeing.

Objective: This study aims to explore the relationships between various coping types, resilience, and anxiety among older Australians. Particular attention is paid to whether resilience moderates coping's effect on anxiety. Method: A total of 324 Australians aged between 55 and 90 (M = 66.7, SD = 8.6) were surveyed as part of the study. Moderation was assessed using structural equation modelling and plots of simple slopes. Results: Significant negative correlations were detected between anxiety and both proactive coping and preventive coping. Higher levels of resilience were associated with lower levels of anxiety. Age moderated both proactive coping and reflective coping's effects on anxiety and gender moderated avoidance coping's effect on anxiety. Resilience was found to moderate the relationships between proactive coping and anxiety, and instrumental support seeking and anxiety. For those high in resilience, there was little association between anxiety and proactive coping or anxiety and instrumental support seeking. Among low resilience individuals, there was a negative association between proactive coping and anxiety, but a positive association between instrumental support seeking and anxiety. Conclusion: Resilience, proactive coping, and preventive coping are all important predictors of anxiety among older people. Among those who are low in resilience, proactively coping with stress may be particularly important for good mental health. The results of the study highlight the complexity of the relationship between resilience, coping, and anxiety among older people.

PurposeBuilding upon a competence-based employability model and a social exchange and proactive perspective, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the relationship between learning value of the job and employability among academic staff employees. Moreover, this study also examined whether this relationship was moderated by leader–member exchange (LMX) and a proactive coping style.Design/methodology/approachAn online self-report questionnaire with thoroughly validated measures was distributed among academic staff employees (n=139).FindingsThe results partially supported the specific study assumptions. Concrete, learning value of the job was positively related to anticipation and optimization, corporate sense and balance. LMX moderated the relationship between learning value of the job, on the one hand, and all employability dimensions, on the other hand. However, proactive coping only moderated the relationship with anticipation and optimization, flexibility and balance. In all cases, under the condition of high moderator variable levels, the relationship became stronger.Originality/valueThis study extends past employability research by applying an interactionist perspective (person: proactive coping style, context: LMX and learning value of the job) approach for explaining employability enhancement. The results of this scholarly work provide useful insights for stimulating future career development and growth, which is of upmost importance in nowadays’ labor markets.

Job insecurity has become a major theme for most workers in our new, COVID-19-induced, world of work. While prior research indicates how workers can cope with the experience of job insecurity in order to mitigate its negative consequences (i.e., reactive coping), little research offers insights into preventive measures workers can use to minimize the further development of job insecurity. Therefore, this study investigates whether proactive coping (i.e., future-oriented coping that tries to detect and proactively manage stressors before they can fully develop) can help workers manage their future job insecurity experience. Additionally, to clarify the difference between proactive and reactive coping, this study explores whether theoretically proactive coping behaviors can also function reactively to buffer the negative consequences of job insecurity. Multilevel path modelling results based on weekly data of 266 workers over a 5-week period indicate that proactive coping is generally related to an increase of job insecurity, instead of the expected decrease. Regarding the reactive functioning of proactive coping behaviors, the results indicate no buffering effect in the relationship between job insecurity and its consequences. The discussion elaborates on possible explanations for these results and the (in)difference between proactive and reactive coping.

PurposeThis study examines the serial mediation mechanism between paternalistic leadership and innovative work behavior through the leader–member exchange (LMX) and employee voice behavior. Particularly, this study utilized the social exchange theory to investigate the indirect effect of three distinct dimensions of paternalistic leadership style on innovative work behavior through LMX and employee voice behavior.Design/methodology/approachSelf-reported questionnaires were used to collect data from 397 employees in Pakistan. Hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling (SEM).FindingsThe two dimensions of paternalistic leadership were significantly related to LMX. LMX had a significant effect on employee voice behavior that was further related to innovative work behavior. The findings also support the mediating role of LMX between authoritarian and moral leadership and employee voice. Further, LMX and employee voice boosted the indirect relationship between moral leadership and innovative behavior. However, authoritarian leadership demonstrated a significant but negative indirect effect on innovative behavior through LMX and employee voice.Practical implicationsThe organizational members need to encourage a high LMX and voice behavior to enhance the positive effects of benevolent and moral leadership styles on innovative employee behaviors. Contrarily, they need to discourage authoritarian leadership if they want to enhance innovative work behavior through LMX and employee voice. Furthermore, when leaders provide a safe environment to employees at the workplace, then they may feel secure to take risks and exhibit innovative work behavior, which ultimately contributes to increasing employee and organizational performance.Originality/valueThis study extended the existing literature on paternalistic leadership in two important ways. First, this study examined a serial mediation mechanism to test the effect of paternalistic leadership on innovative work behavior through LMX and voice behavior. Second, this is a key study to investigate which dimension of paternalistic leadership is effective to boost employees' innovative work behavior at the individual level in the Pakistani organizational context.

The purpose of this study is to analyze the relationship between Transformational Leadership, Leader Member Exchange, Digital Transformation on Work Innovation Capabilities and Organizational Citizenship Behavior. In this study using quantitative methods and data analysis techniques Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) using SmartPLS 3.0 software. This research was conducted the sample units were 390 Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises (MSMEs). Based on the results of data analysis, it is concluded that transformational leadership has a significant effect on Work Innovation Capabilities, transformational leadership has no significant effect on Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Leader Member Exchange has a significant effect on Work Innovation Capabilities, Leader Member Exchange has no significant effect on Organizational Citizenship Behavior, digital transformation has no significant effect on Work Innovation Capabilities, digital Transformation has no significant effect on Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Work Innovation Capabilities have no significant effect on Organizational Citizenship Behavior, transformational Leadership has no significant effect on Work Innovation Capabilities through Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Leader Member Exchange has no significant effect on Work Innovation Capabilities via Organizational Citizens hip Behavior , digital transformation has no significant effect on Work Innovation Capabilities through Organizational Citizenship Behavior.

IntroductionProactive coping helps to reduce stress “in advance” – by possible stressors’ anticipating (Greenglass & Fiksenbaum, 2009). Does it helps to reduce distress in hazardous work environment with extremely high uncertainty level – like in healthcare professionals’ work at the beginning COVID-19 pandemic? Data showed the lover level of proactive coping in healthcare professionals in comparison with non-medical group (Pearman, Hughes, Smith & Neupert, 2020). The acute issue is to investigate proactive coping among medical professionals with different stress level.ObjectivesSpecialists of Moscow public dispensaries (doctors, n=209; nurses, n=131) were checked during pandemic breakout (April 2020) - in order to compare proactive coping and job stressors’ subjective evaluation in groups with high and low chronic states.MethodsThe diagnostic set included: the job stress survey (Spielberger, 1994); the proactive coping inventory (Greenglass, 2002); the chronic stress and fatigues inventories (Leonova, 2012).ResultsCluster analysis by combination of stress-fatigue scores extracted equal 22% of professionals in risk subgroups. Surprisingly no proactive coping differences were found in nurses; among doctors preventive coping is significantly lower in risk subgroup (t=7.05; p=0.009). Revealed job stressors in risk groups for nurses are quite typical; but for doctors they are unusual: extreme workload (t=33.97; p<0.001), low coworkers support (t=48.94; p<0.001), lack of positive feedback (t=62.29; p<0.001).ConclusionsDespite the undeniable workload increase, well-to-do professionals perceived no high job stressors. In risk subgroup with lack of preventive coping, perceived stressors are likely connected with inability to predict strain increase and to minimize the impact of its negative effects (Moore, 2017).

As the focus of aviation safety shifts from technology to human factors, the central role of psychological resilience in flight safety has become increasingly prominent. However, the internal mechanism of how rumination affects psychological resilience, particularly the chain mediating effect of proactive coping and generalized anxiety, has not been thoroughly explored in high-stress populations. Employing a cross-sectional design, 1,235 flight students from the Civil Aviation Flight University of China were surveyed using the Ruminative Response Scale (RRS), Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), Simplified Coping Style Questionnaire (SCSQ), and Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7) to gather data. Structural equation modeling (SEM) and the Bootstrap method were used to test the chain mediating effect. Rumination exhibited a significant negative correlation with psychological resilience (r = -0.365, p < 0.01) and proactive coping (r = -0.285, p < 0.01), and a positive correlation with generalized anxiety (r = 0.337, p < 0.01). Psychological resilience showed a positive correlation with proactive coping (r = 0.727, p < 0.01) and a negative correlation with generalized anxiety (r = -0.270, p < 0.01). Mediation effect analysis revealed that proactive coping and generalized anxiety each played a partial mediating role between rumination and psychological resilience. The mediating effect comprised three paths: "rumination → proactive coping → psychological resilience," "rumination → generalized anxiety → psychological resilience," and "rumination → proactive coping → generalized anxiety → psychological resilience," with effect sizes of 91.22, 7.80, and 0.98%, respectively. Rumination in civil aviation flight students not only directly impairs psychological resilience but also indirectly influences it through the chain mechanism of inhibiting proactive coping and intensifying generalized anxiety. Consequently, it is recommended that civil aviation psychological training focus on cognitive-behavioral interventions to interrupt the activation of rumination, foster adaptive coping strategies, and construct a psychological resilience development model tailored to the specific demands of the aviation profession.

Purpose This study aims to examine the moderating role of individual psychological resources − self-efficacy and proactive coping − in moderating the relationship between perceived operational stress and burnout among police personnel. It seeks to understand how these personal resources can mitigate the adverse outcomes of occupational stress within the policing context. Design/methodology/approach This study used a quantitative research design. Responses were collected from 480 police personnel across two districts in Maharashtra, India, representing various hierarchical levels within the police force. Standardized instruments − the Operational Police Stress Questionnaire, Maslach Burnout Inventory, General Self-Efficacy Scale and Proactive Coping Inventory − were used with contextual modifications. Structural equation modelling was used to explore the relationships between stress, burnout and the moderating effects of self-efficacy and proactive coping. Findings The results confirm that self-efficacy and proactive coping significantly moderate the relationship between perceived stress and burnout. Self-efficacy notably impacted the stress depersonalization relationship, while proactive coping strongly affected emotional exhaustion. These findings highlight the differential impact of personal resources on various dimensions of burnout and reinforce their critical buffering role in high-stress environments such as policing. Attributable to the challenges of the Indian cultural context in general and the police context in particular, the study, contrary to expectation, reports findings where self-efficacy positively moderates the stress−burnout relationship and proactive coping with no significant moderation influence, underscoring the need for police reforms. Practical implications This study provides actionable insights for police training academies and administrators. Developing interventions to enhance sustainable self-efficacy and proactive coping can serve as protective mechanisms against burnout and improve resilience and job performance among police personnel. It also underscores the need for police reforms to overcome the contextual limitations that hinder the effective functioning of personal resources. Social implications By addressing individual and organizational factors, this research contributes to developing holistic, sustainable strategies for improving police well-being. Such efforts can enhance community engagement, reduce attrition and improve public service outcomes. Originality/value This study adds to the limited empirical research on psychological resilience in Indian policing. Contrary to expectations, this study reports positive moderation of the stress−burnout relationship by self-efficacy, which is attributable to contextual shortcomings, emphasizing the need for police reforms.

PurposeThis study aims to examine the role of organisational commitment (affective, normative, continuance) in influencing employees’ knowledge application behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study also probes the moderating role of leader–member exchange (LMX) in the association between organisational commitment and knowledge application.Design/methodology/approachThis study used a sample of 206 employees working in various private sector organisations in Brunei Darussalam. Structural equation modelling using Smart-PLS was used to test the hypothesised relationships.FindingsThe findings show that affective and normative organisational commitment spurred employees’ knowledge application behaviour significantly during the COVID-19 crisis. However, the moderating effect of LMX could not be established in this study.Practical implicationsThe findings provide managers with insights into the crucial role organisational commitment can play in encouraging knowledge application in an organisation.Originality/valueStudies exploring the enabling factors of knowledge application are scarce, especially in the context of a global crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic. This study develops a model and empirically validates the importance of organisational commitment for knowledge application amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. This study also provides insights for managers into how LMX can affect knowledge application outcomes, particularly during uncertain times.

Proactive coping has been documented as a significant predictor of perceived stress. When facing stressful events, the more individuals use proactive coping strategies, the lower their stress level will be. However, there is still little research of possible latent factors participating in this relationship to explain how proactive coping can reduce of perceived stress, directly and indirectly. This study aimed to examine whether self-compassion can mediate the relationship between proactive coping and perceived stress among students. In a cross-sectional study carried out in 2019, we invited 384 undergraduate students in Hanoi (Vietnam) to voluntarily complete a self-report questionnaire that measured proactive coping, self-compassion and perceived stress scale. Results showed that proactive coping was positively related to level of self-compassion, and both proactive coping and self-compassion were negatively related to stress scores. The effect of proactive coping on stress was eliminated when self-compassion was controlled, showing the mediating role of self-compassion in the relationship between proactive coping and perceived stress score. Furthermore, among six factors contributing to the concept of self-compassion, data documented mediating role of "self-kindness,""self-judgment," and "mindfulness" while no mediating role of "common humanity,""isolation," and "over-identification" was observed. Among three mediating factors, mindfulness appeared to be the most important factor explaining the relationship between proactive coping and perceived stress. These results consolidate existing literature of the protective role of self-compassion on psychological health, and hence provide more support for the application of self-compassion, especially of mindfulness, in working with people with stress.

Proactive coping moderates the relationship between meaning of life and sleep quality in university students

Purpose The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the adoption of telework, making hybrid work a standard practice in many organizations. Whilst pre-pandemic research primarily focused on telework intensity (TI), recent shifts require a more nuanced approach, considering both TI and flexibility. Telework flexibility (TF), defined as the autonomy to choose telework frequency, schedule and workdays, remains underexplored despite its potential impact on organizational commitment and leader-member exchange. The aim to examine how two key dimensions of telework – flexibility and intensity – affect employees’ affective organizational commitment (AOC) and leader-member exchange (LMX). It also explores the mediating role of perceived organizational support (POS) in these relations. Design/methodology/approach A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 578 teleworkers in Belgium. Structural equation modeling was used to test the hypotheses. Findings Results indicate that TF is positively related to AOC and LMX through POS. Employees with greater TF perceive higher organizational support, which in turn enhances AOC and LMX. Conversely, TI had a significant negative direct effect on AOC and no significant relation with LMX, nor indirect effects through POS. Research limitations/implications Future studies should further investigate, in a longitudinal design, how teleworking has been formalized and gather specific information about telework policies to assess how different policies can affect the attitudes of workers toward the organization and the leader. Practical implications This study has several implications for practice. Their results regarding TI seem to illustrate the shift that has been generated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, teleworking and TI more specifically, could lead to being left “out of mind,” with workers being at risk of missing out on organizational resources, exposed to the mistrust of their leader and to more challenging interactions (Sewell and Taskin, 2015; Vayre and Pignault, 2014). Now that teleworking has become more of a routine than a perk (Bolívar-Cruz et al., 2024), workers may be more mindful of how telework is implemented rather than of the mere fact of teleworking, as attest the relationships of TF with AOC and LMX through POS in their study. Thus, organizations and managers should tend to develop telework policies that provide sufficient flexibility to workers in their implementation of telework, as telework is becoming an important factor in job attractiveness (Moens et al., 2024). Moreover, developing adequate telework policies will be key in user branding, not only to attract candidates but also to retain current employees (Junça Silva and Dias, 2023). Indeed, while telework theoretically gives more time and place flexibility than working from the office (Schulze et al., 2024), its benefits can only be enjoyed by workers when the organizational policies give them sufficient autonomy on how they may implement telework and when they may telework (Aksnes et al., 2023). Social implications This research would contribute to workers’ development of an emotional attachment to their organization, as well as to high-quality exchange relationships with their leader. Nonetheless, high-intensity telework should be considered with caution regarding the development of the sense of belonging to the organization. Originality/value These findings highlight the importance of organizational policies that enhance TF to strengthen and improve organizational ties. Telework could then be considered a resource when it is implemented flexibly. However, high TI should be considered with caution regarding the development of the sense of belonging to the organization.

Human Resources (HR) is the main driver in achieving the vision and mission of a company. The achievement of company goals will be realized if supported by quality human resources, so it is hoped that HR will be able to respond quickly and be able to face changes in the business world. The purpose of this study is to Analyzing the perception of employee job characteristics at PT Kokoh Semesta, Analyzing the perception of employee job resources at PT Kokoh Semesta, Analyzing the perception of Leader Member Exchange (LMX) employees at PT Kokoh Semesta, Analyzing the perception of employee personal resources at PT Kokoh Semesta and Analyzing employee work engagement at PT Kokoh Semesta. The analysis technique used in this study is structural equation modeling (SEM). The structural equation model or SEM of the Partial Least Squere (PLS) method is a statistical technique that allows simultaneous testing of a series of relatively complex relationships. The results showed that LMX, personal resources and job characteristics had a significant influence and positive influence on the work engagement of PT Kokoh Semesta employees. However, job resources have no effect on work engagement. The increase or decrease in authority, the presence or absence of social support and guidance from superiors has an influence on the level of work engagement at PT Kokoh Semesta but the influence is not significant. Keywords: LMX, personal resources, job characteristics job resources, PT Kokoh Semesta, Human Resources, SEM-PLS, Work Engagement

Visionary leadership is one of the leadership aspects which have drawn much attention of researchers over the past years. As a result of this, it has been found that visionary leadership is positively associated with both organizational and employees outcomes. However, most of studies on visionary leadership has presumed a direct casual effect on these outcomes and has relatively neglected the indirect effect of visionary leadership by intervening with other organizational variables. The objective of the present study is to assess the effect of visionary leadership on organizational commitment (OC) with mediating effect of Leader Member Exchange (LMX).100 respondents were selected as the sample of the study using random sampling method. Standard questionnaires measuring visionary leadership, OC and LMX were administered for data collection. Hypotheses were formulated based on the literature review and tested with Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). It was found that there is a positive and significant relationship between visionary leadership and OC. Further, it was revealed that there is a significant indirect effect of LMX on the relationship between visionary leadership and OC. The direct impact of visionary leadership explains the much of variance of OC than the indirect effect through LMX. The implications of findings were discussed and further studies were proposed. <br /> Wayamba Journal of Management 2013 4(1): 1-10