Teachers’ language assessment literacy: Exploring its construct and contextual factors

IntroductionThis research aims to investigate the impact of students’ language assessment literacy (LAL) on their cognition. The study specifically examines how different levels of LAL influence two critical factors: test anxiety and motivation to learn a second language.MethodsTo achieve the research objectives, a questionnaire was administered to a sample of 415 university students in China. The questionnaire utilized a five-point Likert scale to assess students’ levels of LAL, test anxiety, and motivation to learn a second language. Descriptive data were examined to reveal students’ proficiency in LAL, along with their levels of test anxiety and motivation. Multilevel regression analyses were performed using Mplus to investigate whether students’ LAL proficiency can predict their levels of test anxiety and motivation.ResultsThe findings indicated that the participating students had a proficiency level of approximately 60% in the content of the LAL questionnaire. The analysis further revealed the relationships between specific dimensions of LAL and both test anxiety and second language motivation. The multilevel regression analysis suggested that theoretical knowledge about language and language learning, the understanding of the impact and social value of language assessments, and the uses of assessments to enhance learning, positively predicted students’ extrinsic motivation. Furthermore, students’ understanding of the uses of assessments to learn and their theoretical knowledge about language learning were identified as positive predictors of intrinsic motivation. Additionally, it was observed that students’ LAL did not significantly predict test anxiety.DiscussionThese findings emphasize the significance of enhancing students’ LAL due to the identified relationships between LAL dimensions and motivation to learn a second language. The study suggests pedagogical implications for improving LAL, with a focus on specific dimensions that positively impact students’ motivation. The absence of a significant relationship between LAL dimensions and test anxiety prompts further exploration and consideration of additional factors influencing students’ anxiety in language assessments.

Language assessment literacy (LAL) is a significant component of language teachers’ expertise but is also a challenging task for most language teachers. To date, there have been relatively few studies examining the research on teachers’ LAL during these decades. To fill this void, this article reviews the conceptualizations of LAL and relevant empirical studies published from 1991 to 2021. It first analyzes various conceptualizations of LAL. Then in examining the empirical studies on teachers’ LAL, five major themes emerge: (i) teachers’ LAL levels; (ii) factors influencing LAL; (iii) language teachers’ assessment training needs; (iv) language assessment training courses; and (v) LAL development through reflection. Finally, future research directions on teachers’ LAL are discussed.

Teachers' language assessment literacy (LAL) is critical to the success of education, the quality of students' learning, and students' willingness to study. Yet, studies on teachers' LAL preparation to face the Merdeka Belajar (Freedom of Learning) curriculum are still scarce. Most LAL studies used questionnaires to assess teachers' knowledge. In contrast to that, this study utilized teachers’ LAL knowledge test adapted from Al-bahlani (2019). This study investigates teachers' self-perceived LAL consisting of competence, frequency of practice, and assessment knowledge in The Association of English Teachers Banyumas district region (MGMP) with a total of 77 participants involved by investigating teachers' self-perceived LAL consisting of competence, frequency of practice, and assessment knowledge. The current study utilized two data sources, including a questionnaire and a language assessment knowledge test to employ a quantitative methodology using MANOVA and Pearson’s product-moment correlation. The results showed both strengths and weaknesses in the teachers’ LAL, as well as matches and mismatches between teachers' self-perceived and shown assessment knowledge. Overall, EFL teachers in Banyumas regency are at a fair level of LAL and pre-service training in assessment was the variable with the greatest impact on teachers' LAL. Future research may also require investigating the objectives, actions, and outcomes of assessment training provided by teachers’ training institutes and professional development programs. Keywords: LAL, Language assessment, Language Assessment Literacy, Merdeka Belajar curriculum, Freedom of Learning Curriculum.

As an integral part of teaching, assessment is critical since the information from the assessment is essential for many decisions in teaching and learning. Therefore, teachers must hold sufficient knowledge of assessment literacy. The interest in developing Language Assessment Literacy (LAL) has grown rapidly in the last few years. This growing interest for teachers LAL has sparked discussions related to the topics. This article aims to review research conducted related to the topic of teachers’ LAL. This research used a systematic review as the research methodology where 21 articles from various peer-reviewed and reputable journals related to language assessment literacy in the past five years were reviewed to understand LAL comprehensively. Five steps of the systematic review were done in this research, namely framing the questions, identifying relevant works, assessing the quality of the studies, summarizing the evidence, and interpreting the findings. The findings of the reviews reported that the research of LAL in the past five years were teachers’ LAL beliefs, the LAL beliefs and their assessment practices, teachers’ LAL training needs, and developing teachers’ LAL. The findings also suggested that teachers were still in needs of continuous support to develop teachers’ LAL because they lack of LAL training both for pre-service and in-service training. This research recommended that LAL training should be carefully planned to cater the needs of teachers assessment practices.Keywords: Language Assessment Literacy; teachers’ language assessment literacy; LAL beliefs, assessment practices, systematic review

Language assessment literacy has emerged as an important area of research within the field of language testing and assessment, garnering increasing scholarly attention. However, the existing literature on language assessment literacy primarily focuses on teachers and administrators, while students, who sit at the heart of any assessment, are somewhat neglected. Consequently, our understanding of student language assessment literacy and its impact on learning remains limited. Moreover, previous language assessment literacy research has been predominantly situated in classroom assessment contexts, and relatively little scholarly attention has been directed to large-scale testing contexts. To address these gaps, this study investigated the role of language assessment literacy in students’ learning for the writing section of the Duolingo English Test (DET) through a netnographic approach. Twenty-three online videos posted by test takers were analyzed with reference to the existing conceptualizations to examine learners’ language assessment literacy of the DET writing section. Highlighting learners’ voices, we propose a new model relating writing assessment literacy to learning which has the potential to develop the learner-centered approach in language assessment literacy research. It elucidates the internal relationships among different dimensions of students’ language assessment literacy and their impacts on the learning of writing. We, therefore, discussed the findings of this study to argue for the importance of the transparency of assessment and the opportunities to learn provided by large-scale assessments, and to call for teachers' attention to students' language assessment literacy and understanding of the writing construct.

To date, language assessment literacy (LAL) research has primarily focused on language teachers and a range of other stakeholders (e.g. Hasselgreen et al., 2004). However, little research attention has been given to the LAL of those who prepare pre-service teachers for their future profession, i.e. teacher educators. Also, the dominant methodology in LAL research has been the survey approach, eliciting perceived needs and self-reported knowledge (e.g. Vogt & Tsagari, 2014). In response, this mixed methods study explores the LAL of teacher educators working in English teacher education programmes, in this case in Chile. First, it aimed to gain understanding of their language assessment knowledge by means of a knowledge test, the Language Assessment Literacy Inventory (LALI), which was completed by 94 teacher educators. Additionally, interviews with 20 teacher educators provided insights into their language assessment beliefs and practices, and the extent of the LAL training they conduct with pre-service teachers. Despite teacher educators’ lack of language assessment training, key findings are that they have practice-derived language assessment knowledge. This has been mainly acquired on the job through communities of practice, which were found to be enriching environments for language assessment learning. Simultaneously, contextual constraints, and teacher educators’ conceptions of language assessment influence their practices and how they develop their pre-service teachers’ LAL. Importantly, the lack of language assessment training was reported to have a direct effect on teacher educators’ language assessment practices and their conceptions of assessment. Additionally, the findings identify teacher educators as key stakeholders in the enhancement of a LAL development cascade in the language teaching profession. The study has theoretical implications through the development of the LALI instrument and a LAL model for the Teaching Profession (LAL-TEP), which describes the interrelationships between language assessment beliefs, knowledge, practices, learning, and context. The study also has practical implications for LAL development in pre- and in-service education and for policy-making in Chile.

Teachers from different sectors of education have always been involved in the process of assessing learners’ academic performance. In the language teaching discipline, this has highlighted the significance of language assessment literacy (LAL), reflecting its significance to language teachers across various settings. In the wake of recent theoretical bourgeoning, development of a contextualized framework that proves helpful in conceptualization and measurement of English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers’ LAL is required. To this aim, the present study gained insights from Fulcher’s (2012) LAL framework into validation and examination of a LAL scale that could be considered for its applicability and usefulness as a LAL measure and help EFL teachers self-evaluate their LAL levels (in particular, their LAL theoretical and practical components). For this purpose, a mixed-methods approach was used to synthesize interview data from six national and international experts with questionnaire data obtained from Iranian EFL teachers (N=173) to gauge their assessment theories and skills and bear evidence in support of the reliability, validity and utilization of the measure put forth. The study rounds out with the significance of teachers’ LAL in teachers’ pedagogy, with finally presenting theoretical and practical implications of the obtained evidence for educational research and practices.

Language assessment literacy (LAL), an increasingly prominent research topic, has generated substantial literature in language testing and assessment. Thus far, there seems to be few comprehensive reviews on this research topic. The current scoping study reviewed a total of 81 papers by synthesising LAL studies published from 2008 to 2020. It addressed research questions concerning (1) the overall trend and progress, (2) the research foci and (3) characteristics of implications of LAL research for language teacher education and professional development. The review found that there was an upward trend in LAL studies, which were conducted predominantly in the Asia-Pacific region, Europe and the Middle East, and that most studies employed qualitative over quantitative and mixed-methods designs. An overwhelming majority of studies focused on language teachers, especially EFL teachers, while few were conducted from the perspectives of learners, policy makers, language testers, teacher educators and other stakeholders. The review also discovered that most studies researched stakeholders’ LAL levels, needs and development, overlooking LAL developmental trajectories, localised LAL components, the development of LAL measures, perceptions of LAL and LAL impact. Three characteristics were identified from implications of LAL studies as contributions to language teacher education and professional development. Based on the findings, some guidelines were suggested for future research.

In China, English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers seem to be in a dilemma because of the discrepancy existing in classroom teaching and assessment, the new curriculum requirement, and the paucity of language assessment knowledge. To tackle these problems, there is an urgent need to evaluate EFL teachers’ language assessment literacy (LAL) and mitigate the possible obstacles that EFL teachers face. Since the term assessment literacy (AL) was firstly suggested, the concept has been derived in other specific fields, such as LAL. Different theories, models, and research on LAL have been examined to study language teachers’ LAL in many countries; however, LAL is still a new concept in China. Thus, the study aims to investigate and analyze the possible reasons behind the current LAL level of in-service EFL teachers in China.

Despite being trained in pre-service teacher education programs, most EFL teachers are underprepared when faced with language assessment-related activities. Part of the problem emanates from the fact that Language Assessment Literacy (LAL) as a construct has not been well defined by experts. The purpose of this study was to pinpoint the components of LAL in the Iranian EFL context using an adapted version of Fulchers' (2012) LAL survey with two types of constructed and closed response items. The participants were 280 English language teachers from seventeen different provinces in Iran. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and cross validation were used to define LAL as a construct. Furthermore, qualitative data analysis procedures were employed to analyze the data obtained from constructed response items. The results indicate that LAL in the Iranian context is comprised of four factors, namely: test design and development, large-scale standardized testing and classroom assessment, beyond-the-test aspects (which mainly includes social and ethical aspects of language testing/assessment), and reliability and validity. Furthermore, the results show that the EFL teachers in this study believe that besides the theoretical issues of assessment, they should also receive hands-on skills-based instruction in language assessment. These results can have direct implications for future teacher education programs with the aim of enhancing EFL teachers' LAL.

Inspired by Fulcher’s (2012) data-driven approach to language assessment literacy (LAL), I introduce learners’ voices as a way to better understand teachers’ LAL. I also incorporate learnings from recent literature on child development regarding research with children to suggest that we consider assessment with learners in LAL and language assessment studies more generally. Assessment with learners offers a new perspective on discussions of LAL as well as a new means of assisting learners to enhance their own understanding of how assessment works. Drawing from examples in my own work on LAL, I address a few potential benefits of incorporating learners’ voices in LAL discussions. With an emphasis on “by doing” and “learner-centered” elements, assessment with learners can resonate well with Fulcher’s apprenticeship content approach to LAL.

The importance of Language Assessment Literacy (LAL) in education has received considerable attention in recent years due to its crucial impact on learning and teaching. This article seeks to synthesize existing knowledge, identify research gaps, and offer insights into the complex nature of LAL in educational environments. This study employed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) approach. A comprehensive collection of LAL studies was obtained by systematically searching academic databases, specifically Scopus and Web of Science (WoS). The review includes peer-reviewed studies from the social sciences, using a systematic search strategy to find relevant articles. Six main themes were identified in the synthesis of final findings from a review of key themes based on a sample size of 35. These themes are as follows: (1) LAL Components; (2) Teachers' LAL Levels; (3) Knowledge, Perceptions, and Practices of Language Assessment; (4) The Development of LAL Measures; (5) Professional Development and Training Needs in LAL; and (6) LAL Impacts. This literature review offers a comprehensive synthesis of current research on LAL, providing valuable insights for educators, researchers, and policymakers. The findings contribute to the ongoing discussion on effective language assessment practices in diverse educational settings, providing a basis for further exploration and development of LAL.

Reading on online platforms becomes more prevalent, and technology adoption to support reading assessment continues to proliferate. As teacher competence to accurately assess students’ reading competence in online platforms is paramount, this study concerns how novice and experienced teachers conduct assessment practices in online reading in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) under the language assessment literacy (LAL) principles proposed by Giraldo (2018). A mixed-methods approach was employed by gathering data through a close-ended questionnaire from 60 participants to examinethe level of LAL perceived by novice and experienced teachers, while semi-structured interviews with six selected participants were conducted to uncover the factors influencing LAL from the lens of both novice and experienced EFL teachers. The findings indicated that novice and experienced teachers’ LAL was at moderate level, and few others found hurdles to optimally utilizing skills in LAL. The qualitative elaboration revealed three factors influencing teachers’ LAL in online EFL reading: technology factors, individual factors, and teacher’s knowledge factors. Portraying the factors would equip teachers to better enhance their LAL knowledge and optimize the assessment practice despite numerous limitations. The finding calls for assessment training, which provides teachers with necessary skills to effectively conduct assessment practice in online reading.

This study aims to review studies about foreign / second language teachers’ language assessment literacy (LAL) from 1987 to 2019. Within the scope of this study, 82 research studies and articles are investigated in the national and international spheres. Perceptions of assessment literacy are unpacked to find out language teachers’ background and needs in LAL. Subtopics are determined to categorize the research studies as assessment courses, teachers’ knowledge base in language assessment, their beliefs and practices in language assessment, their training needs in assessment, professional development in LAL, perceptions in LAL, and effect of LAL and curriculum on exam preparation. This review article indicates the general view on EFL teachers’ LAL level and makes suggestions in developing language assessment literacy.

To date, most studies on language assessment literacy (LAL) have focused on how to improve language teachers’ LAL through external inputs (e.g. assessment training, courses), but much remains unknown with regard to how individual teachers develop their LAL over time in their teaching contexts. To fill this void, the current study explored the lived experience of a novice university English teacher's LAL development over an extended period in the Chinese context. It was found that the teacher witnessed her LAL development throughout one academic year. Specifically, she developed more conceptual knowledge of language assessment, became more aware of the importance of learning in relation to assessment, accessed more assessment skills and became more student centred in assessment practices. This improvement, following an individualised developmental trajectory in a bottom-up way, was mediated by contextual (e.g. institutional support), experiential (e.g. assessment training or learning) and personal (e.g. agency and reflection) factors, in all of which the teacher's self-agency contributed substantially to her LAL development. Based on the findings, implications for university English teachers’ professional development in language assessment have been provided.