Teacher Labour Markets During 160 Years of Education Expansion: A New Data Set for 1861–2025 for Norway

Minnkandi aðsókn að kennaranámi og skortur á kennurum veldur talsverðum áhyggjum. Fyrir um aldarfjórðungi var farið í átak til að fjölga réttindakennurum en hlutfall leiðbeinenda hafði verið hátt, einkum á landsbyggðinni. Farið var að bjóða upp á fjarnám og samið var við kennaramenntunarstofnanir um að taka við f leiri nemum. Hlutfall leiðbeinenda lækkaði í kjölfarið og einnig varð efnahagshrunið 2008 til þess að kennarar sneru aftur til starfa í grunnskólum. Nú hefur hlutfall leiðbeinenda hækkað að nýju og óttast er að fjöldi útskrifaðra grunnskólakennara með réttindi haldi engan veginn í við þann fjölda sem hættir störfum, meðal annars vegna aldurs. Brottfall úr grunnskólakennaranámi og hæg námsframvinda veldur einnig áhyggjum. Í þessari rannsókn er dregin upp mynd af bakgrunni grunnskólakennaranema við Menntavísindasvið Háskóla Íslands og kannað hvort munur sé á fjar- og staðnemum. Niðurstöður benda til þess að fjarnemar eigi síður háskólamenntaða foreldra en staðnemar og að börn kennara fari frekar í staðnám en fjarnám. Svipað hlutfall fjarnema og staðnema vinnur með námi en fjarnemar vinna mun f leiri tíma á viku. Til að mynda vinna 42% þeirra meira en 30 tíma á viku meðan hið sama á við um 4,5% staðnema. Það hvort nemar eru í stað- eða fjarnámi tengist ekki aðdráttaraf li kennarastarfsins en hversu ánægðir þeir eru með bæði námskeið í uppeldis- og kennslufræði og kennslufræði greina tengist aðdráttaraf linu, og þættir sem tengjast vettvangsnámi skipta miklu máli. Þetta er í takt við fyrri rannsóknir um mikilvægi þeirrar reynslu sem kennaranemar fá í starfi með námi og í æfingakennslu.

Teacher education in Poland is viewed as a lifelong journey, encompassing preservice training, induction, and ongoing professional development. The primary emphasis is on empowering teachers as perpetual learners and tailoring their education to meet individual needs, as well as the needs of educational institutions and students. In Poland, teacher education is deeply integrated with higher education and has been shaped by substantial reforms. The current landscape of teacher education in Poland is a result of significant reforms initiated by the state, aligning with the Bologna process. The Bologna process aims to harmonize higher education systems across Europe by establishing the European Higher Education Area. This facilitates student and staff mobility, enhances inclusivity and accessibility, and boosts the competitiveness of European higher education globally. The changes in teacher education in Poland have also emphasized quality assurance, qualifications frameworks, recognition processes, and more. The overarching objective is to elevate the quality of teaching and learning. Comparative analysis of Poland’s teacher education system and international findings suggests several policy initiatives that should be implemented. These initiatives can be broadly categorized into two sets: strategies aimed at improving the status and competitiveness of the teaching profession, and targeted approaches for attracting and retaining specific types of teachers, particularly in specific schools. To enhance teacher education in Poland, recommendations include limiting the number of teacher education candidates based on demand, increasing funding, and implementing more selective admission processes within higher education institutions. Moreover, strengthening support for teacher mentors and improving the socioprofessional position of teachers is seen as essential. Attracting and recruiting the best teachers in Poland is a critical challenge, particularly in the face of emerging trends and teacher shortages. To address this issue effectively, it is essential to improve the image of the teaching profession, enhance working conditions, and provide incentives for aspiring educators. Additionally, more flexible teacher education programs that accommodate a diverse range of candidates and prepare teachers for the changing educational landscape are necessary to ensure a continuous supply of high-quality teachers.

The commitment to establish a ‘school-led’ system of teacher education in England, announced by the Coalition Government in 2011 and relentlessly pursued thereafter, represented a radical departure from previous kinds of initial teacher education partnership. While it is entirely consistent with a neoliberal agenda, with its strong regulatory framework and appeal to market mechanisms, it is also underpinned by a particular conception of teaching as a craft – ‘best learnt as an apprentice observing a master craftsman or woman’. In 2014, the government established a Review of Initial Teacher Training, led by a primary school head teacher, Sir Andrew Carter. This signalled the recognition of teacher education as a ‘policy problem’, adopting Cochran-Smith’s term. The ensuing report, published in early 2015, was more nuanced than might have been anticipated, although a number of profound tensions emerge from a closer analytical reading; four of these tensions are similar to those previously defined by Cochran-Smith and two are newly emergent. This paper identifies and discusses these tensions as they appear in the Carter Review and relates them to wider debates about the links between teaching, teacher education, evidence and research and to policy-making processes in education.

Switzerland, as well as many other countries, is facing a teacher shortage. Due to the increasing number of students and the retirement of the baby-boomer-generation of teachers, there is a lack of teachers. The recruitment of teachers is challenging politics, Universities of Teacher Education and school administrations. This article focuses on the situation in Switzerland, contextualizing the situation within explanations on the education system and on teacher education. Switzerland offers eleven years of compulsory schooling; private schooling is very rare (less than 5%). Teacher education is offered at Universities of Teacher Education. Pre-primary and primary teachers (classes minus 2 to 6) are qualified with a Bachelor’s degree, lower secondary teachers (7–9) with a Masters’. After graduating beginning teachers seek an employment and secure a contract with school administration, with the possibility of terminating the contract mutually. As part of an induction program, beginning teachers can access counselling and further education. Universities of Teacher Education and mentors in local schools run this program. Teacher shortage is a cyclic phenomenon, the current teacher shortage is mainly caused by demographic factors, such as increasing number of students, entering school on different levels, and the numerous retirements of teachers of the baby-boomer generation. While other contributing factors are explored, no significant determinants have been identified. The results demonstrate that the teaching profession remains an attractive career decision. To attract more students to teacher education, alternative teacher education programs are developed, aiming especially at second career teacher students. However, the shortage continuous to grow, and the lack of qualified teachers remains substantial. To mitigate the shortage, people without teacher education can get a teaching job as well, albeit limited to a one-year contract. After an accounted successful first year as an unqualified teacher and a successfully passed assessment, they can enroll at the University of Teacher Education and study to become a teacher. The article highlights different aspects of the Swiss school system, teacher education and the teaching profession as well as an insight on teacher shortage situation in Switzerland and the efforts taken.

Introduction. The article is devoted to the problem of newly-qualified teachers’ professional development. The aim of the study is to identify the difficulties of novice teachers during their adaptation in educational settings of the region and to substantiate the ways to improve the quality of initial teacher education in the system of continuous teacher education. Materials and Methods. The methodological basis of the study consists of contextual biographical and cluster approaches. The contextual biographical approach involves studying teachers’ professional biographies in the system of continuing education, taking into account complex external conditions. The cluster approach defines the principles of interaction between various stakeholders within the regional community in order to ensure the sustainable development of the regional educational system. In order to achieve the research goal, the following methods were used: theoretical (analysis of scholarly literature, comparison, generalization) and empirical (online questionnaire, focus group method, method of independent expert assessments). Results. Based on the analysis of scholarly literature, the authors provide their definition of professional and personal teachers’ development as a basic component of their professional development during the period of initial teacher education and at the initial stage of professional development. The authors argued that the main difficulty of novice teachers during the adaptation period is their interaction with various subjects of the educational process at school - students and their parents. The article substantiates the necessity of creating a regional educational cluster as an effective mechanism for improving the quality of initial teacher education at different stages of continuous teacher education. Conclusions. Based on the authors’ idea about professional and personal development of teachers as a basic component of their professional development in the initial period of their working life, the study reveals the main difficulties of novice teachers during their adaptation in educational settings of the region, overcoming of which requires changes in the system of psychological, teacher and methods education at universities and colleges. As an effective mechanism for improving the quality of teacher education, the authors substantiated the idea of creating a pedagogical scientific and educational cluster in the region, which unites the participants of the territorial educational community interested in providing the regional education system with highly qualified teaching staff.

The aim of this study is to analyze teacher education systems in China and Japan, and compare the findings with teacher education in Turkey, thus contribute to the developments in teacher education in Turkey. The research was based on the years 2000 to 2017. Document analysis method, which is one of the qualitative data collection methods, is used in this research. Within the scope of the document review, official sources such as education ministries of the countries, internet pages of universities and internet pages of international education organizations are used; and educational policies, entrance conditions of teacher education institutions, the structure of these institutions and teacher education programs are examined. The collected data are analyzed by content analysis. In conclusion, the continuous policy changes regarding teacher training in Turkey are found to be detrimental to teacher training and prevent the implementation of research focused teacher education programs. For practice courses, both course hours and the cooperation between faculty and practice schools are found to be insufficient. The Education Bureau in China is the institution responsible for education policy, education program, teacher education and legislation. Though teacher education programs vary in different states, generally, those who have high school diploma may enter teacher education institutions after passing and practice-based evaluation system. It is found that the teaching profession is given a great importance in Japan, and that there is no specific policy in pedagogical formation education, and therefore, pedagogical formation education needs to be reviewed and updated. Turkey, China and Japan have taken inspiration from progressive education philosophy, one of the modern education philosophies, for their teacher education systems. Key words: Teacher education, teacher education in Turkey, teacher education in China, teacher education in Japan.

Education systems have a key role to play in preparing future citizens to engage in sustainable living practices and help create a more sustainable world. Many schools around the world have begun to develop whole-school approaches to education for sustainability (EfS) that are supported by national and state policies and curriculum frameworks. In addition, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) guidelines for teacher education (2005) and the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (2015) are setting an agenda and direction that builds on the activity and focus generated by the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005–2014). Initial teacher education, however, lags behind in the effort to build the capacity of new teachers to initiate and implement such approaches (Evans, Stevenson, Lasen, Ferreira & Davis, 2017;Steele, 2010). Evidence suggests this is because there is limited or no core environmental or sustainability knowledge or pedagogy being provided in a thorough and systematic fashion through initial teacher education and in-service courses and programs (Bjo rneloo & Nyberg, 2007; Evans, et al., 2017; Ferreira, Ryan & Tilbury, 2007). A major reason for this state of affairs is that teacher education is a complex process and sustainability is a complex concept. Teacher education systems have multiple interconnected, hierarchical levels; institutionalized subsystems; complex rules; and numerous stakeholders and interest groups with competing agendas (Ferreira & Ryan, 2012). Sustainability is also a complex, context-dependent concept with multiple variations and interpretations ranging from ‘weak’ to ‘strong’ (Neumayer, 2013). While teacher educators have a well-developed understanding of education systems, few have the knowledge, skills, and dispositions to incorporate a sustainability orientation into their teaching of teacher education students (UNESCO, 2005). The challenge for teacher education, therefore, is to develop teachers who understand and can employ an EfS framework to inform their future teaching and learning practices (UNESCO, 2005). The initiative discussed in this book sought, over a decade, to address this challenge through implementing a systems approach to embedding sustainability in teacher education institutions in Australia. We provide an overview of the key stages of this initiative, discuss our rationale, and explain the model used to facilitate change. Additionally, we offer descriptive exemplars illustrating changes in teacher education facilitated through the initiative and provide a ‘how to’ guide and key lessons learnt. These are resources to be employed by those seeking to facilitate a system-wide change initiative in their organizations.

This national case study reports on the development of a national network, curriculum framework and resources for teacher education, with specific focus on the inclusion of environment and sustainability, also known as education for sustainable development (ESD) in the South African teacher education system. It reviews and reports on the history of environment and sustainability education in teacher education, and from this, the national case study begins to conceptualise a new approach to environment and sustainability teacher education within a new curriculum policy environment, and a new teacher education and development policy environment. Action research case study methodology is used to document the first phase of the emergence of this network, and this report covers Phase 1 of the initiative, which covers formation of the network, review of previous practices, three conceptual development pilot studies undertaken in both in-service and pre-service teacher education environments and a piloting of a ‘Train the Trainers’ or ‘Educate the Teacher Educators’ programme, which complements and extends the actual teacher education and development (TED) programme under development. The study highlights critical insights of relevance to the shift to a content referenced curriculum in South Africa, and shows how the ‘knowledge mix’ which forms the foundation of the new Teacher Education Qualifications Framework can be engaged. It also highlights some features of the changing knowledge environment, and what dominant knowledge practices are in environment and sustainability-related teaching and teacher education practices, opening these up for further scrutiny. It raises concerns that dominant knowledge work, while integrating a range of forms of knowledge (as is expected of the teacher education system under the new policy), tends to be limited by content on problems and issues for raising awareness, and fails to develop deeper conceptual depth and understanding of environment and sustainability, as issues based knowledge dominates. Similarly, it fails to support social innovation as a response to environment and sustainability concerns, as awareness raising dominates in dominant knowledge work. The study provides a revised conceptual framework for the Teacher Development Network (TEDN) programme, with guidance on key elements necessary to take the programme forward in Phase 2.

Teacher education is debated all over the world, and a part of this debate concerns the quality of teacher education. For religious education (RE) teacher education, however, the debate is not only about quality but also about growing diversity. In this article, we explore how RE teachers have been educated and how this has changed in Türkiye. How religious diversity has been integrated into the RE teacher education system is also explored. By teacher education/training, we mean initial (not in-service) teacher education, and by RE, we mean different types of RE provided in schools in Türkiye: compulsory, optional, and vocational RE. The findings reveal that there have been frequent changes, back-and-forth reforms, and a lack of RE teacher education philosophy in Türkiye. Therefore, establishing a consistent RE teacher education policy remains a serious challenge. Moreover, it seems that religious diversity has not been well integrated into RE teacher education in Türkiye. Currently, theology faculties only offer two courses which are overtly related to religious diversity, and both of them approach religious diversity from a historical perspective. It seems that there is a need to rethink the program structures of theology faculties to reform RE teacher education. Theology faculties may offer several programs in line with employment areas. In this way, religious diversity might also become better integrated into compulsory RE teacher education programs. However, this process should be carried out with a scientific understanding by conducting stakeholder and needs analyses.

Professional-lifelong Education and Training of Teacher: A Significant Perspective and Hard Challenge for the Development of School System

Teachers in Europe are educated in a wide variety of institutes and by a wide range of curriculum models. The main aim of teacher education is the same throughout Europe – the education of teachers – but the underlying ideas and the contexts differ, leading to significant differences between teacher education curricula Eurydice, 2002). Nevertheless, the teacher education institutes in the various European countries face similar challenges, like how to support the development of teacher identity, how to bridge the gap between theory and practice, how to find the balance between subject studies and pedagogical studies, how to contribute to a higher status of teachers and how to prepare teachers for the needs of pupils in the 21st century (European Commission, 2007a). Both the academic discourse and the exchange of examples of good practice show that in most countries, the national debates focus on similar issues (see, e.g., OECD, 2005). The curriculum designs of European countries differ, as they are based on different national contexts such as different education systems, political choices and underlying mental models, for example, with respect to the expected level of knowledge and skills of teachers. Reflection on these differences can stimulate discussions and help to identify alternatives, find new perspectives and raise awareness of national presuppositions. It is impossible within the context of this chapter to make a thorough comparison of all systems of teacher education in Europe. Chapter 2 offers a more detailed description of teacher education in the United Kingdom, Israel and the Netherlands. In this chapter, we reflect on some of the issues that define teacher education, and we try to identify choices that are made in different countries and the differences and similarities in structures and approaches that are a result of these choices. To structure our reflections, we use a comparative framework focusing on: The system of teacher education ; The content of teacher education

In the emerging time of the new National Education Policy, the current scenario of the education system demands multiple changes for the sustainable future of the nation, and the present and upcoming generations. The present education system is good enough to increase the literacy rate, however, a state like Kerala has a hundred percent literacy rate compared to any other state of India; yet for employment and education, a major part of the population of the state migrates to various states or countries. The high literacy rate is no more a concern of time; people are quite aware of the social things around them without formal education, due to social media or the revolution of technology. However, the recent trends in every field need an upgraded version of formal education. The fourth goal out of UNESCO’s sixteen SDGs focuses on quality education for a better future. The present research paper discusses the current situation of the Indian education system and the implementation of the new approaches required for a strong education policy through the newly emerging NEP for the welfare of the progeny and the country, which also supports UNESCO’s SDGs for global welfare. The research is developed on secondary data with critical analysis and exhaustive reading. Besides this abstract provides a concise overview of the key global dynamics shaping the field of teacher education in the 21st century. In an era characterized by rapid technological advancements, cultural diversity, and evolving educational philosophies, teacher education faces complex challenges and promising opportunities. This paper explores the multifaceted landscape of global dynamics in teacher education, including policy harmonization, technology integration, inclusivity, 21st-century competencies, professional development, research-based practices, sustainability, public-private partnerships, teacher shortages, and crisis preparedness. This abstract underscore the critical importance of addressing these global dynamics in teacher education to meet the evolving needs of learners and societies worldwide. Policymakers, educators, institutions, and researchers must work collaboratively to navigate these challenges and seize the opportunities they present, ultimately shaping a brighter future for education on a global scale.

Now is the time, the authors argue, for schools of education, in conjunction with school and community partners, to get serious about creating good examples of professional practice and preparation. Failure to do so will put the whole enterprise of teacher education in jeopardy. TEACHER educators live in a new world. This is a world of accountability, competition, alternatives, and serious questioning of the need for university-based teacher education. Even five years ago, it was unthinkable that university teacher education programs would be facing serious challenges to their legitimacy and importance. Many teacher education faculty members still deny that such a threat exists, but they are wrong. Those of us who have been working seriously on teacher education reform for the past 15 or so years have until recently viewed this work as an internal university agenda -- how to improve our campus-based programs. The game has changed radically. In Texas, where we work, school districts, regional educational service centers, community colleges, and for-profit companies now provide almost one-third of the teacher education programs. In the last legislative session, a bill was narrowly defeated that would have allowed Texas school districts to hire anyone they thought could do the job, regardless of credentials, and then decide what teacher education these teachers needed. We have lost our exclusive franchise, and most states are in similar situations or not far behind. Teaching as a Profession Politicians, the media, and scholars are currently polarized over the issue of teacher education reform. Either they advocate the professionalization of teaching or they push for the deregulation of teacher preparation and an end to the monopoly that institutions of higher education have held in this area.1 This debate grows out of public concern and agreement that 1) there is a teacher shortage and 2) a teacher shortage would be detrimental to the education of the youths of the United States. Institutions of higher education have been primarily responsible for the training and supply of effective, qualified teachers but are having increasing difficulty meeting the demand in many states. The drive to professionalize teaching and teacher education has been spearheaded by the National Commission on Teaching and America's Future and forwarded through the joint efforts of the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, and the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium.2 These projects reflect a broad-based effort to develop a consistent nationwide approach to teacher education based on high standards for the initial preparation, licensing, and certification of teachers. Proponents of teacher education advocate standards-based teacher preparation and professional development as well as teacher assessments based on performance across the professional life span. On the other side of the argument, those who advocate the deregulation of teacher preparation maintain that the requirements of state licensing agencies and schools of education are unnecessary hurdles that prevent qualified, bright people from entering the field of teaching. They promote alternative programs as viable routes into teaching and want to establish local control for determining the qualifications of teachers. Under this approach, districts would have the freedom to determine the hiring criteria for their teachers, and anyone with content knowledge and a bachelor's degree could be quickly placed in the classroom without having any formal pedagogical training. The issue at hand is whether or not the profession of teaching is indeed a profession and whether or not becoming a teacher requires learning a specialized body of pedagogical knowledge and a specialized set of skills. Teacher educators maintain that teaching is a profession as legitimate as the medical profession or the legal profession. …

Teacher education is an integral component of any educational system. It is intimately connected with society and is conditioned by the ethics, culture, and character of a nation. Teacher education in the modern period was characterized by the British in India. Different committees were instituted to look into the system of teacher education and training. In the present section, an attempt has been made to shed light on eight erudite positions on Teacher & Teacher Training in Colonial Bengal. Basically, the philosophical basis of teacher education has been discussed from Indian perspective. Mainly, an attempt has been made to discuss the opinion of a great person of India regarding teacher education. Few of them later came to be acknowledged afterwards as pioneering educators amongst whom the name of Tagore, Vivekananda, Aurobindo and Nivedita are worth mentioning. Exploration of the documents will be the first phase of the study, which will be followed by the qualitative content analysis, and in the second phase, historical research criticism, both internal and external, will be used. It would describe why and when teacher training had been established as a system of education in India. It would identify and clarify the opinions and thoughts of a great person and their role in that historical context.

The Problem of teacher shortage is actual one of the most discussed problems in the school system in Germany as well as in other countries. This paper gives an insight into some specific points and reasons that may be important for the search for solutions. It could be shown, that teacher shortage is a generic but differentiated problem for different regions, school types and subjects. It could be also shown, that teacher shortage is likely underestimated in Germany, reasoned in challenges of educational forecasting, especially by the actual way of forecasting the number of successful graduations from teacher education. The analyses of data from Mecklenburg-West Pomerania indicate that the drop-out of student teachers is higher than expected and student teachers graduate mostly later than scheduled. Last but not least it could be shown, that the traditional system of teacher education might not be able to close the gap alone—especially in a short term. Reforming and developing the traditional system of teacher education is necessary, but it is difficult and will need a very long time. For that (and other reasons), it requires a stable and flexible system of alternative paths to becoming a teacher.