Abstract
Several biomaterials, including natural polymers, are used to increase cellular interactions as an effective way to treat bone injuries. Chitosan (CS) is one of the most studied biocompatible natural polymers. Graphene oxide (GO) is a carbon-based nanomaterial capable of imparting desired properties to the scaffolds. In the present study, CS and GO were used for scaffold preparation. CS was extracted from the mycelium of the fungus Aspergillus niger. On the other hand, GO was synthesized using an improved Hummers-Offemann method and was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy (AFM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and dynamic light scattering (DLS). Subsequently, three formulations (GO 0%, 0.5%, and 1%) were used to prepare the scaffolds by the freeze-drying technique. The scaffolds were characterized by FTIR, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), to determine their thermal stability and pore size, demonstrating that their stability increased with the increase of GO amount. Finally, the scaffolds were implanted, recollected 30 days later, and studied with an optical microscope, which evidenced the recovery of the tissue architecture and excellent biocompatibility. Hence, these results strongly suggested the inherent nature of chitosan/graphene oxide (CS/GO) scaffolds for their application in bone tissue regeneration.
Highlights
Nowadays, the “gold standard” for repairing of bone injuries included the use of either an autograft or an allograft; these have presented some drawbacks associated with limited supply of bone from the host, donor site pain, potential for donor site infection for an autograft, high cost, and the risk of viral and bacterial transmission for an allograft [1,2,3]
The basic hydrolysis of the vegetative body of the fungus A. niger allows the deacetylation of the chitin to prepare chitosan [16]
It is possible to generate CS with higher percentages if the extraction is performed from shells of crustaceans, since more than 60% of its content is chitin; there are some protein remnants left that may be allergenic, it is preferred to use mycelium as a source of CS [20]
Summary
The “gold standard” for repairing of bone injuries included the use of either an autograft or an allograft; these have presented some drawbacks associated with limited supply of bone from the host, donor site pain, potential for donor site infection for an autograft, high cost, and the risk of viral and bacterial transmission for an allograft [1,2,3]. Several biomaterials, including natural and synthetic polymers, are used to study cellular interaction, proliferation, and differentiation [5]. Molecules 2018, 23, 2651 processes that occur at the molecular level and are reflected in cell development. It is appropriate to encourage the growth of cells by creating new materials with scaffolds characteristics [6]. A scaffold is a support that allows cellular interactions, which contribute to the formation and repair of functional tissues [7]. Scaffolds act as supports to facilitate the migration, adhesion, and transport of bioactive cells or molecules in charge of regenerative processes [7]. The scaffolds must, be three-dimensional and porous structures that serve as a temporary cellular matrix to promote vascular and cellular growth, while the expected tissue regeneration takes place [8]
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