Sustainable urbanization and marine protection: A novel lifecycle approach using fuzzy-TOPSIS for green infrastructure.

Integrating coral reef ecosystem services into marine planning

At the 7th conference of the parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD-COP7, Kuala Lumpur, 2004) it was agreed to establish a global network of marine and coastal protected areas by 2012. The defined objectives of this MPA-network are based on the ecosystem approach: to protect biodiversity and other ecological values, and to ensure sustainable use. The (inter)national policy guidelines state that the selection of MPAs should be based on scientific information and ecological criteria only. As a signatory to the Convention, the Netherlands is now faced with meeting this obligation, and the process of designating the first Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the Dutch part of the North Sea is currently in progress. We focus on the science–policy interactions that are part of this Dutch MPA selection process. By taking a closer look at the contemporary site selection process as well as its historical background, we show that ecological, socio-economic and political considerations cannot always be easily separated. Uncertainty is high and the ultimate selection and delimitation of candidate sites rather seems to be the result of a balancing act between ecological, socio-economic and political interests, in which scientific and policy guiding procedures blend with ad-hoc political decision making, and with expert judgment in cases where data is lacking. As such, this paper presents an example of present-day environmental policy making in action.

Fishers are highly dependent on marine resources regarding food and income, which can lead to resource over-exploitation. Coral bleaching, climate change impacts, overfishing, marine pollution, and illegal fishing all pose threats to marine ecosystems, calling for conservation initiatives like the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs). This study focused on the catch trends of small-scale fishers located nearby to MPAs in Mati, Mabini, San Isidro, and Lupon, southeastern Philippines. It describes the catch trends and fishing effort (CPUE) in the locally managed MPAs in Davao region and some of its implications. Data collection was conducted through actual landed catch surveys based on participatory catch assessment. The fishing gears represented in the study sites included fish traps, spear guns, longline, troll line, hook and line, multiple handlines, and gill net. The catch frequency from the different study sites was quantified (Mati = 2.1-4.0 kg trip-1, Lupon = 10.1-20.0 kg trip-1, San Isidro = 2.1-4.0 kg trip-1, Mabini = 0.1-2.0 kg trip-1) and showed declining trends. Such circumstances call for strict enforcement of the no-fishing zones within the established MPAs to generate greater yields in the long-term and benefits for the local communities. Moreover, there is a need for accurate record-keeping using databases for all the MPAs because documenting MPA recovery relies on credible data sources. Well-protected MPAs have shown abundant fisheries yield and healthy marine ecosystems that foster eco-tourism and enhance awareness on marine conservation. Ecotourism activities within the MPAs may help balance out the spatial and economic displacement of fishers that previously fish in the MPAs sites.

Establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) helps to restore and sustain marine and fishery resources, but in the Philippines only 20% of total MPAs are achieving their management objectives. We conducted a case study of a small MPA in Northern Philippines to understand socio-economic status and livelihoods of the fishermen stakeholders, and examine their attitudes and perceptions on marine resource values and conservation. Using an ordered probit model, we also investigated factors affecting these perceptions. We found a lower fish income ratio in higher income quartiles, a small share of local non-fishery income, and an apparent lack of other livelihood opportunities within the rural economy. The majority of fishermen had positive perceptions of the non-market value of marine resources, agreed with the need for MPAs, and perceived positive potential income benefit from MPAs. Level of education and fishing income were consistent significant positive determinants of these perceptions. Policy implications suggest: involving likely-to-be-displaced reef fishers in the crafting of management plans; conducting intensive research on appropriate and feasible livelihood options, for example, marine culture technologies; and designing explicit strategies to increase the propensity of coastal households to invest in children's education as a strategy for long-term sustainability of resource management.

Economic, social, and environmental sustainability in development theory and urban planning practice

INTRODUCTION. Treaty and customary rules of International Law of the Sea provide for the duty of States to protect and preserve the marine environment, using for this purpose “the best” means. States shall also cooperate in elaborating legal mechanisms for the protection and preservation of the marine environment on a universal, regional or bilateral basis. Universal treaty sources of modern international law, including the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982 (UNCLOS), among other numerous rules on protection and preservation of the marine environment, provide for the adoption by the coastal states more stringent ecological laws and regulations in “clearly defined” areas. Different terms are used for designating such areas in UNCLOS and other international instruments such as Convention for the Prevention of Pollution by Ships, 1973 modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 1973/78); Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992; the Protocols adopted by the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP); documents of International Maritime Organization (IMO). Such terms are used: “special areas”; “marine protected areas”; “marine protected territories”; “particularly sensitive areas”. Not all these terms are used in UNCLOS and none of them is defined by the rules of this convention. Convention on Biological Diversity provides for the definition of “marine protected areas”, but only for the purpose of conservation of biodiversity. This paper addresses optional approaches to interpreting rules of international law which are relevant to marine protected areas and practice of states in designating such areas, first and foremost, in the waters of Arctic and Antarctic, where the consequences of marine pollution might be irreversible.MATERIALS AND METHODS. This paper demonstrates the evolving legal basis of international cooperation of states in establishing marine protected areas beginning from the text of the Washington convention of 1926, materials of the Committee of Experts of the League of Nations, the Convention for the Prevention of Pollution by Ships, 1973 as amended by Protocol 1978, and documents of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Particular attention is devoted to interpreting the rules on special areas provided in UNCLOS. The paper addresses also the relevant rules of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992; UNEP Protocols, beginning with the first of them – “the Protocol on Mediterranean Specially Protected Areas”, adopted in 1982; and also relevant soft-law documents such as “Guidelines for the Designation of Special Areas and the Identification of Particularly Sensitive Areas”, adopted by the Assembly IMO in 1991 and famous “Agenda for XXI”, adopted by the Rio Environmental Conference in 1992 and relevant documents of the Johannesburg Summit, 2002. The focus of the research is directed to legal materials of designating marine protected areas in the Arctic and Antarctic.RESEARCH RESULTS. International Law is developed by more and more maturing legal mechanisms of different level, including treaty level, which relate to designating marine protected areas and to governance theirof. Different classifications of such areas are suggested in legal literature, taking into account different terms used in relevant sources of international law. It is suggested in legal literature to make accent on differentiating between the term “special areas”, as it is provided in MARPOL 1973/78 and the same term used in UNCLOS. As a result of this research it is suggested a different approach. The practice of states in pursuing environmental protection, as noted in the paper, reveals a trend not to fragment relevant legal notions, applicable to designating special protected areas at sea in defined limits and thus not to create additional confusion of legal terms but rather to consolidation, comprehensive interpretation of international law rules applicable to special areas. Within this trend it is suggested that the term “marine protected areas” as a generic term is interpreted in a wide context, not limiting it to the meaning of the term, used in a specific international agreement. According to such a wide approach rules of international law on marine protected areas in their cumulative effect provide not only duties of states to protect marine environment; not only that more stringent environmental measures in such areas are aimed at protection from pollution by oil or other pollutants; such stringent measures are aimed also at preservation of ecosystems, ecological complexes, including marine living resources. The economic activities in such areas might be restricted or even prohibited in order to achieve specific environmental purposes, including preservation of marine endemics and other rare marine living resources; including also sustainability of marine bioproductivity and monitoring the state of ecological balance in such areas. The coastal states may also adopt laws and regulations relating to special environmental governance of such areas.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. While according to MARPOL 1973/78 the legal regime of “special areas” is limited by more stringent measures for preventing pollution of the sea from vessels, the legal regime of marine protected areas is different, according to cumulative effect of relevant rules provided in UNCLOS, Conservation of Marine Biodiversity, the UNEP Protocols to regional sea conventions and other sources of international law relating to preservation and protection of the marine environment. Firstly, according to the latter sources, the legal status of marine protected areas is defined not only a broader context, but also as an on-going process, with perspectives of its development and individual framing, taking into account the oceanographical and ecological conditions of a concrete marine area which is qualified as specially protected. Secondly, almost universal recognition in legal teachings of a broad meaning of the term “marine protected areas” does not mean that designation of such areas is the most effective at the universal level. Though the first Intergovernmental Conference in September 2018 demonstrated the common intention of states to prepare at the universal level the Agreement on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction, no one expects a speedy conclusion of such an agreement, even of framework character. In this context it is concluded in the paper that more perspective are regional and bilateral levels of interaction of states concerned for designating marine protected areas, with more detailed consideration of the relevant oceanographical and ecological conditions of a particular marine region and special character of shipping traffic in such a region. In practical terms, issues of interpretation and application of rules of international law on marine protected areas are very important for the relatively young practice of designating such areas in the Arctic, which is nevertheless very sensitive for each Arctic states as shown in the paper.

China’s coastal areas face serious environmental degradation as a consequence of large-scale economic development. To balance environmental sustainability with economic development, China is currently implementing a strategy of ‘eco-civilization’, with marine protected areas (MPAs) expected to be one approach to achieving sustainable marine ecosystems. Since the 1990s, China has established over 270 MPAs, but their effectiveness remains unknown, particularly in the Yangtze River Delta. This study modified pre-existing frameworks to evaluate the effectiveness of three national MPAs in the Yangtze River Delta. The modified framework includes conservation outcomes and their potential drivers. Drivers consist of – attributes species or ecosystems within the MPA, attributes of the MPA, institutional design principles, and participation. Five scenarios were proposed based on score combinations of the four drivers: proactive, well designed, well governed, interactive, and learning. All three MPAs achieved a satisfactory level of outcomes and most of the drivers for all three MPAs achieved a satisfactory level. Two of the MPAs were categorized into the learning scenario, and the third into the well-designed scenario, indicating that there is still room to improve institutional design principles and public participation. We suggest developing cost and benefit indicators to more deeply understand proportionality among stakeholders. In addition, the role of participation should be clarified and promoted. We recommend regular environmental performance monitoring and assessment to identify problems and optimize management.

Community responses to flood risk management – An empirical Investigation of the Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in Malaysia

Marine Protected Areas (MPA) is an area that potentially poses stress from outside such as human activities and ocean pollution. One of the global issues that threat ecosystems include MPA is ocean debris. The aim of this paper is to assess vulnerability of MPA based on the trajectory of debris affected by oceanographic condition. Three MPAs were chosen in the Java Sea region including: Seribu Islands National Parks, Biawak Island Conservation Area, and Karimunjawa Islands National Parks. The data provided by The Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model surface current and Global Forecast System surface wind were used to determine the trajectory of the debris. We simulate the ocean condition in two monsoons. The results showed that debris floating around the MPAs have a potential of reaching beaches inside the MPAs and have different patterns between the monsoon. Furthermore, in Seribu Islands and Karimunjawa Islands which are designated as National Parks, the debris managed to land in the most crucial zones, Core Zone and Buffer Zone. Modelling of marine debris, such as the one used in this study can be used to inform authorities regarding the landing points of floating debris to create better management decisions in battling global marine debris issues.

This study aims to investigate the role of community participation and its impact on economic, environmental, and social sustainability in marine protected areas (MPAs) in Malaysia through the development of ecotourism. A structured questionnaire was employed for collecting data and analyzed using the partial least square method. The results indicate that community participation explains a significant amount of variance in ecotourism development. The findings reveal that ecotourism development contributes toward economic, social, and environmental sustainability directly and indirectly. This implies that ecotourism development and community participation are of paramount importance in achieving sustainable development in MPAs.

With the rapid development of urbanization and industrialization, human activities have caused marine pollution in three ways: land source, air source, and sea source, leading to the problem of marine environments. Remote sensing, with its wide coverage and fast and accurate monitoring capability, continues to be an important tool for marine environment monitoring and evaluation research. This paper focuses on the three types of marine pollution, namely marine seawater pollution, marine debris and microplastic pollution, and marine air pollution. We review the application of remote sensing technology methods for monitoring marine pollution and identify the limitations of existing methods. Marine seawater pollution can be effectively monitored by remote sensing technology, especially where traditional monitoring methods are inadequate. For marine debris and microplastic pollution, the monitoring methods are still in the early stages of development and require further research. For marine air pollution, more air pollution parameters are required for accurate monitoring. Future research should focus on developing marine remote sensing with data, technology, and standard sharing for three-dimensional monitoring, combining optical and physical sensors with biosensors, and using multi-source and multi-temporal monitoring data. A marine multi-source monitoring database is necessary to provide an immediately available basis for coastal and marine governance, improve marine spatial planning, and help coastal and marine protection.

Vulnerability of different types of fishers to potential implementation of a management plan in a Marine Protected Area (MPA) in the Maldives

Sustainable financing of a national Marine Protected Area network in Fiji

Integrated coastal management and marine protected areas in the Philippines: Concurrent developments

Urban green space (UGS) is a fundamental element of urban systems for enhancing the quality of urban life. UGS plays a pivotal role in promoting urban ecological sustainability if important criteria are integrated into urban planning programs. This paper explores the impacts of the ecological criteria on urban sustainability through UGS planning and examines these criteria within the context of the Adelaide Metropolitan Area as a case study. To address the study’s goals, a content analysis was conducted to identify the most critical criteria affecting urban ecological sustainability through UGS planning. Subsequently, based on the identified criteria, a household survey was conducted to evaluate the status of the case study concerning the ecological sustainability factors. In this stage, 100 responses were collected through a questionnaire survey. Then, based on the household survey results, a solution was provided to the challenging criteria by a local experts’ interview. For promoting urban ecological sustainability, ten criteria were identified as the most important and effective criteria based on the previous studies. Household survey data was analysed using one-sample T-test, multiple linear regression, and geographically weighted regression (GWR) model. The results indicated that the criteria of reviving ecological networks, water resources, and the protection of UGS with the score below standard average (which is 3), require practical guidelines and policies to enhance the sustainability of Adelaide Metropolitan Area. The regression analysis demonstrated that ecological landscape and design had the strongest positive effect on sustainability (adjusted R2 = 0.685), while the geographically weighted regression highlighted biodiversity and vegetation as particularly influential in Plympton (local R2 = 0.866) and Unley (local R2 = 0.488). Expert interviews recommended strategies such as wastewater recycling, long-term conservation planning, and restoring ecological connectivity. This study provides a practical framework to guide urban planners and policymakers in enhancing ecological sustainability through UGS planning.