Sustainable urban agriculture in developing countries. A review

The population living in cities is continuously increasing worldwide. In developing countries, this phenomenon is exacerbated by poverty, leading to tremendous problems of employment, immigration from the rural areas, transportation, food supply and environment protection. Simultaneously with the growth of cities, a new type of agriculture has emerged; namely, urban agriculture. Here, the main functions of urban agriculture are described: its social roles, the economic functions as part of its multi-functionality, the constraints, and the risks for human consumption and the living environment. We highlight the following major points. (1) Agricultural activity will continue to be a strong contributor to urban households. Currently, differences between rural and urban livelihood households appear to be decreasing. (2) Urban agricultural production includes aquaculture, livestock and plants. The commonest crops are perishable leafy vegetables, particularly in South-east Asia and Africa. These vegetable industries have short marketing chains with lower price differentials between farmers and consumers than longer chains. The city food supply function is one of the various roles and objectives of urban agriculture that leads to increasing dialogue between urban dwellers, city authorities and farmers. (3) One of the farmers’ issues is to produce high quality products in highly populated areas and within a polluted environment. Agricultural production in cities faces the following challenges: access to the main agricultural inputs, fertilizers and water; production in a polluted environment; and limitation of its negative impact on the environment. Urban agriculture can reuse city wastes, but this will not be enough to achieve high yields, and there is still a risk of producing unsafe products. These are the main challenges for urban agriculture in keeping its multi-functional activities such as cleansing, opening up the urban space, and producing fresh and nutritious food.

FOOD FOR THE CITIES: URBAN AGRICULTURE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Recent surveys have shown that the global urban population is increasing at an accelerated rate. As a result, the associated increased demand for food items has pushed up the overall cost of living for urban dwellers. To mitigate this increased cost of living urban dwellers increasingly find solace in agricultural activities. This surge in urban agricultural activities comes at a time characterized by long term shifts in temperatures, rainfall patterns and general weather conditions. While many researchers have presented evidence of increased urban agricultural activities, there remains a paucity of integrated literature that summarizes climate change issues on urban agriculture. This research reviewed literature on the influence of climate change on urban agricultural operations in sub-Saharan African cities. A narrative review approach was employed to summarize and synthesize findings and make recommendations for future research. The review employed the key terms ‘urban farming’, ‘urban agriculture’, ‘climate change’, ‘peri-urban agriculture’, and ‘urban agricultural production’ to search relevant literature indexed in databases: Scopus, Directory of Open Access Journals, Web of Science, Google Scholar and Academic Search (EBSCO). The choice of these keywords was informed by the authors’ specialist understanding of urban agriculture and climate change. There is consensus among the reviewed literature that climate change affects urban agriculture from production to processing, storage, and distribution. This study also established that the extent and magnitude of climate change impacts differ from one region to another. Therefore, adaptation and mitigation strategies ought to be context specific and not universally applicable. This is important because Africa is a climatologically diverse continent so that the impact of climate change faced by one sub-Saharan African city may be different from that for other cities in other regions. A framework that simplifies the effects of climate change on urban agriculture-dependent households in sub-Saharan Africa was produced. More specifically, this framework is recommended to those urban farmers and policymakers that are involved in mitigating the consequences of climate change as well as achieving food and nutritional security. The authors also recommend this framework for unpacking the knowledge of the influence of climate change on urban agriculture as well as exposing directions for future research. This work adds to the growing body of knowledge in the domain of climate change on urban agriculture-dependent households.

– Urban agriculture (UA) is defined as the production of crop and livestock goods within city and town boundaries. According to some statistics, 200 million people are employed in UA, contributing to the food supply of 800 million urban dwellers [1]. In African countries, 40 per cent of urban dwellers are said to be engaged in some sort of agricultural activities and this percentage rises to 50 per cent in Latin American countries [2]. If such numbers are accurate UA may play a role in addressing urban food insecurity problems. This paper attempts to fill some of the key research gaps in this area using survey data for 15 developing or transition countries. The paper analyzes in a comparative perspective the importance of UA for the poor and food insecure households located in urban areas. Keyword – urban agriculture, nutrition, micro data. I. INTRODUCTION Ravallion (2007) [3] estimates that about one-quarter of the developing world’s poor live in urban areas. Poverty is becoming an urban phenomenon and poor households are urbanizing faster than the population as a whole. UA might be seen as a way to reduce poverty and under nutrition in urban area. Our understanding of the importance, nature and food security implications of UA is however plagued by a lack of good quality and reliable data. While studies based on survey data do exist for several major cities, much of the evidence is still qualitative if not anecdotal. This paper analyzes in a comparative perspective the importance of UA for 15 developing or transition countries. The two basic research questions the paper addresses are: 1. What is the magnitude of UA in terms of households that are engaged in urban agricultural activities and what is the share of income they derive from it? 2. Is there a link between households’ engagement in UA and household food security (as proxied by dietary diversity)? After a brief review of the literature (section II), the paper quantifies the importance of UA in terms of the share of urban households engaged in agricultural activities and of the share of income generated by UA (Section III). In Section IV, we use multivariate analysis to gauge how participation in UA impacts dietary diversity. Dietary diversity indexes have been shown to be good proxies for calories intake and nutritional outcomes [4]. The key findings and policy conclusions are briefly outlined in Section V.

To meet the nutritional needs of the people of Jakarta, urban agriculture is one of the food supply solutions. This study analyzes community expectations for participation in sustainable urban agriculture in Jakarta. The latest developments of this study provide results on the impact of economic, health and environmental variables on people's expectations for the sustainability of urban agriculture in Jakarta. The novelty of this study is that it considers the theme of the study, namely the inhabitants of the city of Jakarta, engaged in urban agriculture, a total of 112 respondents. The results of this study indicate that economic, health and environmental variables, simultaneously or in part, positively influence the expectations of community involvement in the sustainability of urban agricultural activities in the city of Jakarta. Based on these findings, it can be said that the expectation of community engagement in sustainable urban agriculture in Jakarta translates into greater productivity, knowledge, skills, awareness and understanding of the existence of clear regulations. The corrected R-square value is 0.704 based on the results of the coefficients that determine the impact of economic, health and environmental factors on community participation expectations in the sustainability of urban agriculture in Jakarta. In other words, 70.4% of community participation expectations in urban agriculture depend on economic factors, while health and other environmental factors depend on other factors. Expectations for community involvement in sustainable urban agriculture are already high and Jakarta's food security can be ensured later.

This study investigates the climate change adaptation strategies employed by urban crop and livestock farmers in Ghana. With the increasing recognition of climate change threats to agricultural productivity and food security, it is crucial to understand urban farmers’ adaptation strategies. Through a mixed-methods approach—surveys of 191 urban farming households using a questionnaire and interviews of 13 key informants using an interview guide, data were collected from farmers in urban Ghana. The quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics from the Statistical Package for Social Sciences and presented in tables. The qualitative data were analysed manually based on themes and content and presented in narratives. The results indicated a significant relationship between urban farmers’ educational status and gender and their sources of climate change adaptation information. Urban farmers’ climate change adaptation strategies include planting more improved and less indigenous crop varieties and rearing of more exotic and less local breeds of animals. Again, to buffer animal production against climatic diseases, urban farmers treat their animals through vaccination, giving animals pills, disinfecting pens, and spraying animals’ bodies with chemicals. Access to agricultural extension services is the main challenge in urban farmers’ climate change adaptation. The study underscores the importance of enhancing farmers’ resilience through targeted interventions, including capacity-building initiatives, access to climate information and financial resources, and the integration of climate-smart agricultural practices into urban planning and policy frameworks. In addressing these challenges and promoting adaptive strategies, urban crop and livestock farmers in Ghana can enhance their resilience to climate change and contribute to sustainable urban agriculture and food security. This study, therefore, contributes to the urban agriculture and climate change literature by drawing attention to how crop and animal farmers in the urban neighbourhood adapt to climatic stressors.

Background and objective: The scales of urban agriculture need to be assessed and rescaled to implement or achieve its multidimensional functions and values in South Korea. Significant scales and narratives were assessed and rescaled with narratives described in the laws and literatures.Methods: Narratives created from 1980 to 2022 were collected. The definition of urban agriculture, the difference between farmers and urban farmers, and the spatial scales of rural and urban areas were assessed using the scales and narratives in the related laws, plans, research papers, etc. In addition, the multidimensional functions and values that urban agriculture aims for were analyzed.Results: Under domestic laws, urban agriculture is defined as cultivating crops, trees, or flowers, or raising insects within a city for hobby, leisure, study, or experience purposes. Farmers and urban farmers are distinguished based on the purpose of the activity or on whether the agricultural activities are carried out as economic activities. The spatial scale of urban areas where urban agriculture is practiced is not limited to specific administrative districts. The literature defines urban agriculture as all agricultural activities in and around cities and spaces with urban contexts and includes the secondary and tertiary industries. Participants in urban agriculture are the public who participate or want to participate in urban agriculture. The spatial scale of urban agriculture includes urban areas, areas connected to urban areas, and areas in which urban and rural contexts are hybridized. The function and value of urban agriculture have been further expanded compared to the past.Conclusion: The narratives for the re-scale framing of urban agriculture are as follows: urban agriculture is agricultural production activities carried out by the public in urban agricultural spaces, spaces linked to urban agriculture, or spaces with the context of urban agriculture to implement or achieve multi-dimensional functions and values of urban agriculture. In future, it will also include the secondary and tertiary agricultural industries related to urban agriculture.

This chapter examines the biophysical, socio-economic, environmental and human health dimensions of urban and peri-urban agriculture in Dakar city (Senegal) and identifies structural threats to urban agriculture, including those already induced, or have the potential to be induced, by climate change. Urban agriculture, which provides an important source of fresh vegetables and other fresh products for the city is being increasingly marginalised due to a combination of factors including diminished soil and water quality, increasing temperatures and reduced rainfall, urban encroachment and pollution from industrial sources. A lack of clearly defined roles and responsibilities between local and national governments hinders the ability to protect urban agricultural land from urban encroachment and a lack of access to credit by farmers adds to their ability to cope with the multitude of other pressures. Dakar is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean on the northern, western and southern sides with no room for expansion, including any potential expansion of urban agriculture. Ground water in this urban zone is steadily deteriorating due to nitrate pollution of shallow groundwater in soil aquifers combined with increasing saltwater intrusion. Recycling of untreated wastewater for use in urban agriculture, a common practice in Dakar and other cities in Africa has increased the incidence of food-borne contamination. For example, recent microbial sampling of water showed a very high proportion of sites (87 %) with contamination levels above World Health Organisation standards for irrigation without restriction. Solid and liquid waste management is one of the biggest problems Dakar is facing as are many other cities of developing countries. Climate change will further impact urban agriculture. Shortening of cold periods favorable to vegetable cropping in semi-arid areas, increasingly hotter summers, more frequent flooding and drought periods, and higher incidence of pest and diseases are among the potential impacts of climate change. Coastal zones of the city are particularly under threat due to the rising sea level with negative consequences of coastal erosion and salt-water intrusion in lowlands. Projection models show a strong warming trend in the region. Conversely, there is no agreed trend of rainfall prediction at present but deficits are anticipated by general circulation models. Adaptation strategies of farmers include lifting the ground surface with landfill in order to better cope with flooding (specifically for flower cultivation), development of soil and soilless micro gardens in boxes, crop diversification and use of hybrid seeds. Urban agriculture has the potential to contribute to climate change adaptation through reinforcement of urban agricultural systems resilience, water recycling, buffering thermal and hydraulic shocks, providing safe and nutritious food, recycling wastes and conserving biodiversity. Despite its huge potential to reduce poverty and make the city more resilient to impacts from climate change, urban agriculture is not high on the urban planning agenda. Recommendations are formulated towards taking into consideration urban agriculture in national and local planning, strengthening capacities of stakeholders and awareness at all levels of society on the economic, social and environmental role of urban agriculture can play in sustainable development and greening of the city and its economy.

Kampala, the capital city of Uganda, has experienced increases in the prices of basic food commodities since 2002, with the sharpest increase noticed over the period 2007–2011. Major factors contributing to this trend include rapid growth in the demand for food due to the increase in population, urbanisation, drought (climate changes) impacts in the agricultural areas of Uganda and a sharp increase in the cost of living driven by inflation. The increase in food prices has made it difficult for many low income earners in Kampala to meet their daily food requirements. In response, urban and peri-urban agriculture is making a very important contribution to the general food supply of the city. Besides making a significant contribution to the food basket of Kampala city, urban and peri-urban agriculture represents an important economic activity within the city. Emerging policy and planning frameworks support the continued positive contribution of urban and peri-urban agriculture. To that effect Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) now recognizes urban agriculture as a land use system and a vital policy issue. However, more is still needed from the public, urban authorities, urban planners and policy makers to strengthen this vital sector. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the development of urban and peri-urban agriculture and its contribution to the food supply crisis in Kampala city, as well as the process of developing policies to enable urban agriculture in Kampala city.

With rapid globalisation and urbanisation, urban agriculture is experiencing many changes, for instance, in the preferences of consumers, who require more food security. In many cities across the world, urban agriculture is also positioned for food production and community building. In Japan, interest in urban agriculture has grown steadily, supported by the enactment of an urban agriculture law in 2015. Urban agriculture studies have been a controversial topic of research since around the 2000s in many academic fields, including geography. However, there have been few studies on the relationship between agricultural management, or farmers, and urban residents, although capturing interactions among urban residents as consumers and intentions for consuming urban agricultural space are critical when considering the sustainability of urban agriculture. Interactions are explored between farms and urban residents in the context of diversified agricultural management based on a case study using Kodaira city in the Tokyo Metropolis. Because the area is one of the urban agricultural areas of the Tokyo Metropolis, where many independent farmers survive, Kodaira city is a suitable study area to explore the diversification of farming and communication with urban residents. Literature, such as previous studies, is analysed. Then, public survey data is analysed to illustrate the spatial distribution of agricultural management patterns and classify them. In addition to qualitative analysis from field research, interviews with case farmers reveal the decision making of farmers in adopting specific methods of agricultural management and interactions with urban residents. Hence, interactions between farmers and urban residents exist based on agricultural management in Kodaira city. The classification of interaction styles is based on features of the area in a definite pattern. Such interaction styles prevent excessive competition among farms, attract stable customers, and realise sustainable management. Finally, urban agriculture in Kodaira city is founded on interactions with urban residents through the diversification of agricultural management.

Rapid urbanization has reduced available agricultural land, creating an urgent need for sustainable food production systems such as urban organic farming. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of manure type and dosage on lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) growth and yield under urban organic farming conditions, identify the optimal application rate, and assess its contribution to soil fertility and sustainable nutrient management. Two separate experimental series were carried out under a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Each series involved a single type of manure (chicken or goat) combined with five application levels (10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 tons ha⁻¹), and every treatment was repeated three times. Lettuce seedlings were transplanted into polybags containing 5 kg of soil mixed with the respective manure treatments. Growth parameters—including plant height, leaf number, and stem diameter—were measured weekly, while yield components (fresh and dry biomass, root length, and total yield) were assessed at harvest. Data were analyzed using ANOVA, and mean differences were tested with LSD at the 5% level. The results revealed that goat manure significantly (p < 0.01) enhanced all growth and yield parameters compared with chicken manure, which had no significant effect due to its high C/N ratio and immature composition. The optimal performance was observed at 30–40 tons ha⁻¹ of goat manure, with 30 tons ha⁻¹ identified as the most efficient rate, producing comparable yield with lower input use. Goat manure improved vegetative growth, nutrient uptake, and overall productivity, highlighting its potential as a sustainable organic amendment for urban lettuce farming. Moderate application of goat manure (30–40 tons ha⁻¹) is recommended to improve yield performance and promote sustainable manure recycling in urban organic agriculture systems. The findings of this study suggest that incorporating organic fertilizers in urban farming can enhance crop productivity and soil health, thereby supporting more sustainable urban agricultural practices, improving food security, and providing environmental benefits through reduced reliance on synthetic inputs.

PurposeThis study addresses the growing challenges of food security, livelihood generation and sustainable urban living in the context of increasing urbanization in developing countries. As urban populations are projected to rise significantly in the coming decades, urban agriculture emerges as a potential solution to support dietary needs and economic empowerment. However, urban farming practices in developing countries face unique socio-economic, cultural and technological challenges compared to developed nations. This paper aims to analyze global urban agriculture practices, examine success stories from developed countries and propose an adaptable, inclusive urban agriculture model tailored to developing countries.Design/methodology/approachThe research systematically reviews global urban agriculture practices, emphasizing successful implementations in developed nations. The research highlights gaps and areas of opportunity by comparing these practices with the unique socio-economic and cultural contexts of developing countries. Focus group interviews were conducted among urban farmers from India to finalize the key variables of urban agriculture in developing countries. The second phase involves the construction of a context-specific model for developing countries and proposing interventions. A comparative method is devised to identify developed country’s urban agricultural practices and policies to derive an optimal urban agricultural model for developing countries.FindingsThe findings from the study reveal that in developed countries, urban agriculture is motivated by the urge to become self-sustainable and to maintain a connection with the community shaped by different socio-economic, environmental and technological factors. In developing countries, the prime motive is to generate a secondary income source and ensure food security. Still, they face limited technological access, insufficient policy support and socio-cultural barriers. Technology-supported urban agricultural infrastructure and support from the government and other stakeholders would be a potential solution in developing countries to implement successful integrative solutions. To support this, adaptive policies in urban agriculture are required to bridge the gap in the current system.Practical implicationsThis research offers practical implications for policymakers, urban planners and agricultural stakeholders in developing countries. It emphasizes the importance of designing policies that address resource constraints, such as land availability and financial access and promote sustainable farming techniques. The study recommends creating supportive frameworks to empower urban farmers, including subsidies, training programs and efficient market mechanisms. Integrating urban farming into city planning can foster green spaces, enhance food security and drive economic development. These actionable recommendations aim to facilitate the growth of urban agriculture as a sustainable and inclusive practice in developing countries.Social implicationsParticipation and social cohesiveness aspects of urban agriculture provide beneficial food accessibility with the concept of food for all, ensuring socio-cultural equality in accessing quality food. This study highlights the role of urban agriculture in addressing socio-economic inequalities, particularly in developing countries. By engaging communities in sustainable farming practices, urban agriculture can create collaborative networks, promote healthier lifestyles and improve access to fresh produce. The study also underscores the importance of empowering urban populations through targeted interventions in urban farming. These social implications reinforce the value of urban agriculture in enhancing the overall quality of urban life.Originality/valueThis study makes a unique contribution by focusing on the contextual adaptation of urban agriculture models for developing countries. While urban farming has been extensively studied in developed nations, limited research addresses developing regions’ specific challenges and opportunities. By proposing a comprehensive and inclusive model that bridges socio-economic and cultural gaps, this research provides a novel framework for integrating urban farming into the urban planning and policy landscape of developing countries. The originality lies in its comparative approach, leveraging global best practices while tailoring solutions to local contexts, thereby advancing the discourse on sustainable urban agriculture.

Zimbabwe is becoming increasingly urbanized, and with this accelerating process comes a host of socio-economic challenges. Rapid urbanization process has resulted in increase urban food insecurity and malnutrition, especially on the side of tandem increase in urban poverty. Urban poverty and food shortage are taking root in Zimbabwe, as a result increased food production and access becomes critical to achieving major nutritional improvement and addressing food insecurity. In the face of urban food shortages, the present paradigm of rural food production cannot meet the challenges of the new millennium. It is hardly surprising that increasing umbers of urbanites are looking to grow their own food, if only to supplement their family food needs. Food is one of the basic needs and urban agriculture, both legal and illegal, has grown as a consequence of the difficult economic climate. Many urban households lack adequate amounts of foods that are rich in the nutrients needed for health and a productive life. It is against this background of increasing urban poverty that this discussion puts forward some suggestions for promoting urban agriculture. Urban agriculture has diverse economic, social and ecological functions and can be valued as one of the agricultural sectors having enormous potential to contribute to food security in Zimbabwe. In this discussion the role of urban agriculture in improving nutrition and food security is highlighted. Urban areas are becoming more 'modern' in their patterns of consumption than in their patterns of production, and there is a danger that the urban poor will become more and more marginalized while, at the other extreme, a small increasingly wealthy elite develops. The demand for food due to increased urbanization is predicted to grow faster than production resulting in a growing food deficit and insecurity in urban areas. Strategies which foster gender equality in urban food production will impact positively on food production, which may translate into expanded food production base to meet the needs of the growing urban dwellers, who are failing to make ends meet. This means participation of women in urban agriculture on the understanding that they are custodians of food production in many urban communities is recommended. However, challenges associated with urban agriculture need to be addressed to avoid land degradation and pollution in urban areas. Therefore, urban agriculture should be considered as a normal component of agriculture system and urban development, which has the capacity to improve nutrition and food security, as it lends itself to the majority of the urban poor. Greater and more sustained food production from urban agriculture will increase the potential access of the urban household to an adequate diet. It is envisaged that urban agriculture will be the new approach to satisfying urban food demands, however best provided incentives to urban farmers are credited by formulating policy fair to urban food producers. In the face of this bleak situation, major efforts are required to promote urban agriculture in addressing the nutritional needs and the perpetual food insecurity challenges in urban areas of Zimbabwe. On the other hand, given the economic, social and ecological advantages of urban farming it is arguably deserves even greater attention than before.

As the urban populations continue to increase, food insecurity will continue to affect urban residents as well, depriving them of access to abundant and nutritious food. This has captured the attention of many policymakers, urban planners, nonprofits, grassroots movements, and other stakeholders. As a result, there is growing interest in developing new sustainable strategies and policy measures that improve food security through the promotion of sustainable urban agriculture. More than 100,000 Louisville residents, of which 20% are from West Louisville, do not have access to adequate and nutritious foods, and are at a higher risk of developing health issues. West Louisville, with the highest population of the city’s most marginalized residents, is the home to almost 10,000 households receiving federal food assistance (SNAP benefits), and about one-third of these households lack mobility to have access to fresh, healthy, local food. Relatively, little research has documented the barriers to sustainable urban agriculture in Louisville, Kentucky. Specifically, the aim of this study is, “to examine the barriers (social, economic, cultural, and political or policy barriers) to sustainable agriculture in Louisville, and how these barriers can be addressed in a more holistic approach with the full and active participation of all stakeholders.” This study identified gaps in achieving a more sustainable form of agriculture in Louisville and proposed potential policy recommendations. With a mixed-methods approach, inclusive of a survey of forty-two urban farmers (growers) and twenty-six Louisville consumers, semi-structured interviews were conducted with twelve key stakeholders (policymakers, planners, and representatives of non-profits) with knowledge and experience about urban agriculture in Louisville, KY. Background information and data about the activities and potentials of urban agriculture in Louisville were also collected and analyzed. This study identified that the two most frequently mentioned barriers were limited access to land (76%) and lack of financial resources or funding (76%). Other barriers were restricted market access (45%), insufficient government or community support (43%), zoning policies (38%), water access and affordability (36%), lack of farming skills/knowledge (30%), and pests and diseases (27%). Addressing these barriers requires significant policy and program initiatives, including, but not limited to: increased access to land and tenure through favorable urban policies (e.g., zoning); increased funding, or provision of more resources; better access to markets by connecting producers to consumers, and the presence of more markets with extended hours and days of operation (especially in West Louisville); more support for urban agriculture from the Louisville

Urban agriculture (UA) forms a crucial part of the urban food chain in many cities in sub-Sahara Africa (SSA). As urbanization continues, it becomes increasingly important to acknowledge the role of UA within the socioeconomic fabric of the city, and build inclusive business models to empower its practitioners. A crucial constraint for this is that various stakeholders in UA often take conflicting stances on the phenomenon. Some see it as an illegal, unsustainable practice leading to pollution and soil degradation. Others claim that it sustainably increases food security and offers employment opportunities, particularly for the urban poor. This leads to a conflict in perception and value sets between the various stakeholders involved in UA, which inhibits the further development of UA into a sustainable, more inclusive business. Recently we also see an emerging view that UA can help address the issue of climate change by sustainable management of soil carbon stocks in addition to providing food and other services. An element that is mostly ignored in the discussion surrounding UA is land-use history and its effect on composition and nutrient status of UA soils, and with it the potential for sustaining UA and mitigating climate change. We propose that the sustainability of UA can only be understood within the context of land-use practices during and before UA. Only by understanding and acknowledging this context can UA be part of inclusive business practices in the urban environment. Here we review scientific literature on UA sites in SSA to unravel the extent of the knowledge gap in this area, and derive a guiding framework to integrate land-use history effects in the discussion on UA within the context of developing inclusive business models for its practitioners.