Suspected menthol poisoning after exposure to essential oils

This study aimed to investigate the biological activities of eight essential and five vegetable oils against Queensland fruit fly Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) (Diptera: Tephritidae), a major insect pest of a wide variety of fruit and some vegetable crops in Australia. Currently, synthetic insecticides are mostly used to control this pest but insecticides of botanical origin are generally safer to humans and the environment. Therefore, botanical insecticides represent a potential alternative to the synthetic insecticides. Under laboratory conditions, repellency and oviposition deterrence effects of essential and vegetable oils were evaluated against female B. tryoni, using artificial substrates and apple fruits. The results showed that vegetable oils were more effective than essential oils in deterring oviposition. The oil with most potential was from safflower, Carthamus tinctorius (Asterales: Asteraceae). This vegetable oil at a concentration of 10 mL/L significantly reduced oviposition in apples by 56.4% in a choice test, but none of the essential and vegetable oils tested had a significant effect on oviposition in apples in a no choice test. The likely mechanism is that safflower and other vegetable oils created a slippery surface and females were unable to make punctures in the fruit for egg deposition. Essential oils especially lemon-scented tea tree Leptospermum petersonii (Myrtales: Myrtaceae), peppermint Mentha piperita (Lamiales: Lamiaceae), honey myrtle Melaleuca teretifolia (Myrtales: Myrtaceae) repelled female B. tryoni, but their persistence on apple fruits was very low, only for a few hours (2-4 hours). Safflower oil was further investigated for its mechanism and effectiveness against female B. tryoni. In a laboratory test, safflower oil treatments (2.5 mL/L and 5.0 mL/L) reduced the number of fly punctures on treated artificial fruits no matter whether prepunctures were present or absent. Safflower oil treatments also reduced the number of fly landings and eggs laid, but only when the treated artificial fruits were without prepunctures. These results confirmed that safflower oil is active against female B. tryoni mainly by physically preventing this fruit fly from making oviposition punctures, not by discouraging them from depositing eggs or by repelling them. Further tests using fruit bearing tomato plants (a no choice test) in a glasshouse situation revealed that safflower oil application at concentrations of 10 mL/L and 15 mL/L reduced the number of oviposition punctures but failed to reduce the number of eggs laid. The fumigant toxicities of the eight essential oils against B. tryoni eggs and larvae were evaluated in the laboratory using a filter paper method with a 950 ml glass jar as the fumigation chamber. During fumigation, eggs were put on a moistened black filter paper, whereas larvae were placed in carrot-based diet. The results of a 24 hour exposure test showed that peppermint oil had strong fumigant effect on eggs. However, this oil showed low fumigant effect against the larval stages. Broad-leaved peppermint (Eucalyptus dives) (Myrtales: Myrtaceae) oil showed low fumigant effect against eggs but a strong fumigant effect on the first and second instars. None of the tested essential oils showed fumigant effects on third instars. Further investigations were conducted on the effects of fumigation with essential oil alone or when followed by cold storage on survival of the fruit fly in “Gala” variety apples. Efficacy was based on the number of pupae recovered from treated and untreated fruits and on phytotoxic effects. In a 24 hour fruit fumigation test, peppermint oil applied at 100 and 200 µL/L air was found to be active against B. tryoni eggs, whereas broad-leaved peppermint oil was active against both eggs and larvae but only at the highest dose tested (200 µL/L air). However, both peppermint and broad-leaved peppermint oils sometimes had a phytotoxic effect on the apples. In a 6 hour fruit fumigation test, an equal mixture of peppermint and broad-leaved peppermint oil (100 µL/L air) did not cause phytotoxic effect but had only a slight effect on B. tryoni eggs and no effect on the larvae. There was no synergism or additive effect when this essential oil mixture was applied in combination with subsequent cold storage. Cold storage (4 + 1oC) alone was confirmed to be a very effective treatment against B. tryoni larvae and eggs in “Gala” apple without causing fruit damage. Contact and oral toxicities of eight essential and five vegetable oils were evaluated against female B. tryoni. In the contact toxicity tests, the oils were sprayed onto females at a concentration of 10 mL/L, whereas in the oral (ingestion) toxicity test, the oils were incorporated into fruit fly baits at a concentration of 20 mL/L bait. The results of contact toxicity tests showed that honey myrtle was the most potent oil. This essential oil at the concentration tested had moderate toxicity against female B. tryoni. However in oral toxicity tests, none of the oils had a significant mortality effect on female B. tryoni.

The concept of rural development, it stems from many factors and variables circumstantial of area as rural tourism, agritourism, products of territory, in our case the medicinal and aromatic plants. In this paper we estimate the land fund by purpose and destination of use is grouped into three categories, where the third, with about 53 thousand hectares, is less fertile, affected by erosion, and should be used with priority. Their expansion results to be 67% in mountain areas, 31% in hilly areas and only 2% in lowland areas. The more effective alternative according to our agriculture theory and practice is that of the aromatic and medicinal plants (medicinal and aromatic plants) that have multi-dimensional cultivating interests for our country, conditioned by the climatic and soil conditions as well as the economic and organizational conditions of a range of stakeholders related to the aromatic and medicinal plants, such as their growers, collectors, aggregators, processors and traders (exporters). In terms of our country the aromatic and medicinal plants have two main situations: From the wild, outdoor and, b) Cultivated, in increasingly growing areas, in different areas and with differentiated practices. Among the the aromatic and medicinal plants in complexity, sage, thyme and oregano have obvious superiority in area planted and the production realized out of their total. The advantage of the aromatic and medicinal plants results in full use of agricultural land, in a broader employment of free labor force (mainly women), increase of income, increase of their exports, which currently account for about 52-54 % of the total that agriculture as a whole realizes in the last years, etc.

The five reservoir fluids (black oils, volatile oils, retrograde gas-condensates, wet gases, and dry gases) are defined because production of each fluid requires different engineering techniques. The fluid type must be determined very early in the life of a reservoir (often before sampling or initial production) because fluid type is the critical factor in many of the decisions that must be made about producing the fluid from the reservoir. This paper summarizes the guidelines for determining fluid type from field data. If any of these three properties fails to meet the criteria described, the test fails and a representative sample of the reservoir fluid must be examined in a laboratory to establish fluid type. It also shows the expected results of laboratory analysis of the fluids. The paper also summarizes schematically the trends of producing GOR and stock-tank liquid gravity. These fluid types are defined for engineering purposes. They should not be confused with reservoir fluid descriptions defined by legal agencies that regulate the petroleum industry. Regulatory definitions of oil, crude oil, condensate, gas, natural gas, casing-head gas, etc., are not related to these engineering definitions and, in fact, often contradict them.

Plant essential oils (basil, geranium, balsam fir, lavender, lemongrass, peppermint, pine and tea tree), mixed with either sunflower oil or ethyl alcohol, were applied at 5% concentrations to the sides of Holstein cattle. Pastured cattle treated with essential oils diluted in sunflower oil had less flies than the untreated control for a 24-h period. However, the essential oil treatments were not significantly different than the carrier oil alone. Barn-held heifers treated with essential oils and sunflower oil alone had significantly less flies than the untreated control for up to 8 h after treatment. Basil, geranium, lavender, lemongrass and peppermint repelled more flies than sunflower oil alone for a period ranging from 1.5 to 4 h after treatments applied to heifers. All essential oils repelled > 75% of the flies on the treated area for 6 and 8 h on pastured cows and indoor heifers, respectively. Geranium, lemongrass and peppermint stayed effective for a longer duration. Essential oils mixed with ethyl alcohol demonstrated less repellence than when mixed with the carrier oil. Safer's soap, natural pyrethrins without piperonyl butoxide and ethyl alcohol alone were not efficient at repelling flies. Essential oils could be formulated for use as fly repellents in livestock production.

The generalist predatory mite Amblyseius swirskii is a widely used natural enemy of phytophagous pests. Due to the negative effects of conventional pesticides on non-target organisms, the development of selective natural and eco-friendly pesticides, such as essential plant oils, are useful pest control tools to use in synergy with biological control agents. Essential oils of Nepeta crispa, Satureja hortensis, and Anethum graveolens showed promising results to control Tetranychus urticae. Hence an experiment was carried out to evaluate the effects of these essential oils on the biochemical and demographic parameters of A. swirskii. A significant reduction of carbohydrate, lipid, and protein contents of oil-treated predatory mites was observed. However, essential oils of S. hortensis and A. graveolens had no effect on lipid reserves. The glutathione S-transferase activity of A. swirskii was influenced by A. graveolens oil treatment. In addition, the enzyme activity of the α-esterases was elevated by all treatments. The essential oils showed no effect on β-esterases activity compared to the control treatment. None of the concentrations of the different tested oils affected the population growth parameters of A. swirskii. However, a significant reduction was observed in oviposition time and total fecundity of predatory mites. A population projection predicted the efficacy of predatory mites will likely be decreased when expose to the essential oils; however, population growth in the S. hortensis treatment was faster than in the other two treatments not including the control. The results presented in this study may have critical implications for integrated pest management (IPM) programs. However, our observations show that using the tested essential plant oils requires some caution when considered as alternatives to synthetic pesticides, and in combination with A. swirskii. Semi-field and field studies are still required to evaluate the effects on T. urticae and A. swirskii of the essential oils tested in this study, before incorporating them into IPM strategies.

ABSTRACTFor the production of essential oils and aromatics to be possible throughout the year, it is necessary to continuously supply the plant raw material to the industry or store the plant material for a designated time. However, to allow the plant material to remain in storage with a high quality, it is essential to reduce its water content by drying. This has motivated the oil extraction industries to demand a better yield and quality from the drying process and raw materials, necessitating fast and efficient evaluation parameters. Thus, the aim of this study was to develop an electric conductivity test for evaluating the quality of aromatic and medicinal plants and to quantify the essential oil yield of the dry vegetable material. The drying experiments were conducted at different temperatures and air velocities by altering the control of the drying conditions. Various aromatic plants with different plant mass, volume of deionized water, and temperature of the vegetal material were examined by the electric conductivity test. The qualities of the fresh and dry plants were compared through these tests and yields of essential oil. Increase in the drying air temperature influenced the increase in the dehydration rate of the aromatic and medicinal plants. Higher drying temperatures decreased the physical quality as evaluated by the electric conductivity test and essential oil yield of the aromatic and medicinal plants. The parameters for validation of the electric conductivity test methodology in aromatic and medicinal plants were defined as an exposure time of 33 h, 5 g of fresh plant material in 75 mL of deionized water, 1 g of dry plant material in 50 mL of deionized water, and temperature of 25°C. The electric conductivity test was demonstrated as an appropriate method to be used in the quality control of aromatic plants in essential oil extraction industries. The use of the electric conductivity test will enable the oil extraction industry to monitor the yield and quality of the essential oils extracted from the aromatic plants after drying and storage.

Soybean (Glycine max (L) Merrill) seed is commonly treated with chemical compounds to extend the cycle of the crop and protect the seed from early season pathogens. However, in organic and sustainable agriculture, chemical seed treatments are restricted and planting date therefore has to be delayed. Seed treatments based on essential plant oils emerge as an alternative because of their natural origin. Seed producers could benefit from these treatments because treated seed can be sold as grain instead of having to dispose the chemically treated seed. The objective of this study was to identify essential oils with antifungal and antibacterial properties to be used as seed treatment in soybean. To achieve this goal, essential oils were initially screened in vitro against common soybean pathogens. Efficacy of essential oils of anise, basil, bay, black pepper, caraway, cinnamon, clove, coriander, lavender, lemongrass, nutmeg, oregano, peppermint, rosemary, sage, savory, tea tree and thyme was tested against Pythium sp, Phomopsis sp. and Pseudomonas syringae pv. glycinea. Minimum concentration of selected essential oils capable of inhibiting pathogenic growth was determined. Results from in vitro experiments showed that cinnamon, clove, lemongrass and oregano essential oils controlled Pythium at concentrations as low as 200 [Mu]L L−1 of the oils. Cinnamon, clove, oregano and savory controlled Phomopsis at concentrations as low as 400 [Mu]L L−1 of the oils. Oregano and savory were able to control Pseudomonas at concentrations as low as 400 [Mu]L L−1. Additionally, essential oils were tested for potential phytotoxic effects over soybean germination, at the minimum inhibitory concentration and at double of the minimum inhibitory concentration. No deleterious effects of the oils on seed germination were observed. Finally, infected seeds were treated with essential oils and efficacy of the oils as seed protectants was examined. Germination tests results did not show an advantage of seeds treated with essential oils over non-treated seeds (P<0.05). Seed treatment could lead to a significantly higher plant stand when conditions are adverse for the seed. However, in our results, levels of seed infection were low and differences in germination were not observed (P<0.05).

Recovery oils, obtained from the hydro-distillation of the fresh flowers of Matricaria chamomilla, as well as essential oils, were studied for their environmental purposes in cultural heritage. These oils were assayed for their antifungal activity against the growth of four molds isolated from archaeological manuscripts (Aspergillus niger), museum gypsum board Antique (A. flavus), museum archaeological tissue (A. terreus), and museum organic materials (Fusarium culmorum) of cultural heritage objects. Oils were applied to inhibit the growth of fungi at amounts of 25, 50, 75 and, 100 µL/mL, and compared with negative controls (0 µL/mL) or positive controls (Sertaconazol 3g/L). Using GC/MS analysis, the main chemical compounds identified in the essential oil were (Z)-β-farnesene (27%), D-limonene (15.25%), and α-bisabolol oxide A (14.9%), while the compounds identified in the recovery oil were α-bisabolol oxide A (18.6%), d-limonene (8.82%), and α-bisabolol oxide B (7.13%). A low amount of chamazulene was observed in both essential and recovery oils, with amounts of 0.73% and 3.50%, respectively. Recovery oil, at a concentration of 75 and 100 µL/mL, showed fungal mycelial inhibition (FMI) percentage for the growth of A. niger, with values of 78% and 85%, respectively. At a concentration of 100 µL/mL, both oils showed 100% FMI of A. terreus. Oils showed weak activity against the growth of A. flavus. Essential oils at 100 µL/mL had good activity against the growth of F. culmorum, with FMI of 86.6%. The results suggest the potential use of essential and recovery oils from M. chamomilla fresh flowers as environmentally friendly bio-fungicides.

(1) Background: The demand for healthy and nutritious food is growing worldwide. Fermented dairy products are highly valued by consumers for their health benefits. Kefir is a fermented dairy product that brings many benefits to the consumer due to its antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, antihypertensive and antimicrobial properties. Extracts from various plants in the form of volatile oils have a beneficial efct on consumer health. Following the research, their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities were demonstrated. (2) Methods: In the present study, the main purpose was to obtain a fermented dairy product with a high nutritional value; therefore, kefir, enriched with three types of volatile oils, namely, volatile mint oil, volatile fennel oil and volatile lavender oil, was made. The kefir samples obtained were sensory and texturally analyzed. The beneficial effect on health must also be studied in terms of the acceptability of these products by consumers from a sensory point of view. A non-numerical method based on several multi-personal approval criteria was used to interpret the results obtained in the sensory analysis. In the textural analysis, the consistency, cohesiveness and firmness of the kefir samples were analyzed. (3) Results: The samples enriched with volatile oils obtained superior results compared to the control sample in both conducted examinations. Kefir samples with volatile oils retained their sensory and textural characteristics for a longer time during storage. (4) Conclusions: The volatile oils added to kefir positively influenced the sensory and textural characteristics of the finished product.

Bioefficacy of essential and vegetable oils of Zanthoxylum xanthoxyloides seeds against Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae).

Volatile constituents and biological activities of the leaf and root of Echinacea species from South Africa

SUMMARY This study aimed to systematically investigate the impact of using functional and/or essential oils on the productive performance and egg quality of quails. The search included the Web of Science and SciELO databases. This study considered articles that used the inclusion of essential oils (EO) and/or functional oils in the diet of Japanese quails. These studies compared the oils with a negative control group (no performance enhancer), antimicrobials, prebiotics and/or probiotics and evaluated the effects on egg quality and performance parameters. The studies included in this review were selected according to the exclusion and inclusion criteria. The essential oils utilised in the selected studies included a blend of essential oils in five studies. The remaining studies used savoury, myrtle, lavender and oregano essential oils. The main positive effects reported in the reviewed studies regarding performance parameters included greater weight gain, increased productivity, better feed conversion, feed consumption, and intestinal morphometry. Regarding the egg quality, the main results included an increase in variables such as egg weight, egg mass, shell thickness, shell weight, yolk and albumen weight, yolk index, Haugh Unit, and yolk and albumen height. Using essential and functional oils in animal feed is a promising alternative for improving the health and performance of poultry, especially quails. These products contribute to egg quality and increased laying rates, promote intestinal health, and reduce oxidative stress. With their antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, essential oils can effectively optimise animal nutrition, benefiting producers and poultry welfare. Continuous research is essential to define the best practices and formulations.

Abstract. Hasan ZYM, Al-Halbosiy MMF, Al-Lihaibi RK, Al-Nauimi EH. 2022. Short Communication: Antimicrobial of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus L.) volatile oil and cytotoxic effects against L20B and MCF-7cell lines. Biodiversitas 23: 5298-5301. Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus L.) has been used in different countries in folk remedies for coughs, malaria, pneumonia, and others for many years. The development of bacterial resistance to available antibiotics has obligated finding for new agents to serve as potent antibacterial drugs. The present investigation deals with the effect of volatile lemongrass oil cultivated in Iraq, on different bacterial species and evaluates the cytotoxic activity of the extracted oil on L20B and MCF-7cell cancer cell lines. The plant samples were collected from the college of science /Baghdad University /scientific garden and classified as C. citratus L. by the plant herbarium at the same college. The volatile plant oil was extracted from fresh leaves at the laboratory of the plant biotechnology department of Biotechnology Research Center at Al-Nahrain university/Iraq. With the aid of the Clevenger apparatus, a hydro-distillation method was employed to quantify the lemon grass’s volatile oil. The extracted essential oil and the plant crud maceration were screened for their antibacterial activity against two Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli, and Vibrio cholera) and two Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus) using the well-diffusion method and disc diffusion method. The biological survey also included the cytotoxic effect of oil subjected to the anticancer activity in vitro on two cancer cell lines; L20B mouse cell line that expresses the genes for human cellular receptors for polioviruses, and the second line was the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. As a result of this screening study, it was shown that the plant seemed to be rich in essential oil content. The Iraqi cultivated plant produced 1.5%v/w essential oil. The volatile oil affected both Gram-negative and Gram-positive strains in comparison to the crud plant extract among the selected bacterial cultures, the highest antibacterial activity was recorded against the Gram-positive strain S. aureus by well diffusion method. Besides, the plant oil showed an inhibitory effect on L20B cell line with a percent inhibitory growth rate reaching 47.1% at 1.125 ?l/mL of the oil concentration. While for the other cell line, MCF-7 cell line, the inhibitory growth rate percentage appeared for almost all concentrations in comparison with control after 24 hours, and even at a concentration of 0.3125?l/mL, the inhibitory growth rate percentage reached up to 86%. This study was conducted to high lightened the benefits of this plant as little study had been done for an Iraqi cultivated plant and the results showed the potent biological effects of the plant especially the volatile oil as an antimicrobial and as a potent cancer inhibitory agent.

Lemon catnip (Nepeta cataria var. citriodora) is an underutilized aromatic and medicinal plant known for its high essential oil yield and distinctive lemon-like scent, and is widely used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, food, and biopesticide industries. Unlike typical catnip, it lacks nepetalactones and is rich in terpene alcohols, such as nerol and geraniol, making it a promising substitute for lemon balm. Despite its diverse applications, little attention has been paid to the valorization of byproducts from essential oil distillation, such as hydrolates and their secondary recovery oils. This study aimed to thoroughly analyze the volatile compound profiles of the essential oil from Lemon catnip and the recovery oil derived from its hydrolate over three consecutive growing seasons, with particular emphasis on how temperature and precipitation influence the major volatile constituents. The essential oil was obtained via semi-industrial steam distillation, producing hydrolate as a byproduct, which was then further processed using a Likens–Nickerson apparatus to extract the recovery oil, also known as secondary oil. Both essential and recovery oils were predominantly composed of terpene alcohols, with nerol (47.5–52.3% in essential oils; 43.5–54.3% in recovery oils) and geraniol (25.2–27.9% in essential oils; 29.4–32.6% in recovery oils) as the primary components. While sesquiterpene hydrocarbons were mostly confined to the essential oil, the recovery oil was distinguished by a higher presence of monooxygenated and more hydrophilic terpenes. Over the three-year period, elevated temperatures led to increased levels of geraniol, geranial, neral, and citronellal in both oils, whereas cooler conditions favored the accumulation of nerol and linalool, especially in the recovery oils. Higher precipitation was associated with elevated concentrations of nerol and linalool but decreased levels of geraniol, geranial, and neral, possibly due to dilution or degradation processes.

The effects of post-harvest spray treatments with essential oils (EOs) obtained from sage and aniseed on maintaining the quality of pears of the ‘Williams’ variety during storage was studied. Harvested pears were picked when they had reached their optimal maturity and underwent a treatment involving the application of aqueous solutions of glycerin, with varying amounts of sage essential oil (SEO) and aniseed essential oil (AEO). Weight loss during storage varied according to the treatment applied with the lowest values recorded for sage essential oil at concentrations of 300 ppm (6.24%) and 250 ppm (6.60%), respectively. Aniseed essential oil had a smaller effect on weight loss compared to sage essential oil. Fruit firmness was better maintained under the influence of the essential oil treatments, with those treated with sage essential oil standing out. The concentration of the essential oils that is used influences the antimicrobial activity of the post-harvest treatment that is applied, with higher essential oil concentrations leading to more pronounced decreases in the total number of mesophilic aerobic bacteria immediately after treatment (4.05 for SEO 200; 3.00 for SEO 300, respectively). The use of post-harvest techniques involving the application of aqueous solutions containing glycerol and essential plant oils by spraying can extend the shelf life of pear fruits.