Surrendering to the Tropics: Tristes Tropiques as Antidote to Tourism’s Bland Place Narratives

Chital deer (Axis axis) were introduced to the Burdekin dry tropics of north Queensland, Australia, in the late 1800s. Here rainfall and plant growth are highly seasonal and a nutritional bottleneck for grazing animals occurs annually before the wet season. This study describes the seasonal changes in diet and diet preference of chital in this seasonally-variable environment. Rumen samples were taken from 162 deer from two sites over the wet and dry seasons of two consecutive years and sorted macroscopically for identification. Relative seasonal availability of plant groups was estimated using step point sampling of areas grazed by chital. Chital alter their diet seasonally according to availability and plant phenology. Chital utilised 42 plant genera including grasses, forbs, subshrubs, shrubs, trees and litter. Grass consumption ranged from 53% of biomass intake during the dry season to 95% during the wet season. The predominance of grass in the wet season diet exceeded relative availability, indicating a strong preference. Although grass contributed more than half of the dry season diet it was the least preferred plant group, given availability, and the least actively growing. Shrubs were the preferred plant type in the dry season, and least subject to seasonal senescence. Composition and quantity of seasonal pastures vary markedly in north Queensland, and chital alter their diet by consuming those plants most actively growing. The increased dry season intake of non-grass forage appears to be a strategy to limit the detriment resulting from the progressive deterioration in the quality of grass.

Destruction of bovine coccidial oocysts in simulated cattle yards by dry tropical winter weather

As we saw earlier in the book, in the Victorian era the early adopters of what was to become nature tourism needed to be taught how to look at the landscape as the sublime picturesque and not as a source of unknown terror (see also Urry, 2002 and Williams, 1973). With Britons forced to discover the delights of nature at home and not as part of a European ‘Grand Tour’ of Europe as a result of revolution within France and subsequent conflict between it and Britain, new English tourist regions were developed. To this end travel guides were released and the ‘tourist gaze’ cultivated (Urry, 2002, 1995); travel requisites became available (such as the Claude glass), and viewing stations were built to frame the view to best advantage (see Figure 1.1). Scroll forward more than two centuries and, again, cultural workers are playing a leading role in providing an enabling framework for the tourist’s appreciation of nature. But while in Wordsworth’s time the effects of massive tourism expansion on the very qualities of place they sought to share were only beginning to be known, today in popular sites, infrastructure and environmental pressures are being felt acutely and are a major policy and planning focus. Meanwhile less popular areas, those without the natural features and associated cultural histories of a Lake District National Park, Cotswolds village or New World wine region, find themselves keen to attract new visitors in order to change their own narrative of place — in the perceptions both of visitors but correspondingly, and more importantly, also of locals.

The effect of spraying for buffalo fly (Haematobia irritans exigua) on infestations, growth rate and lesion development on Bos indicus x B. taurus steers (18 months old) and bullocks (30 months old) were studied in the dry tropics of North Queensland. There were four consecutive drafts commencing between July and September and terminating the following June-July. Half of the animals were sprayed with 200 g/l fenvalerate to control buffalo flies. Treated animals carried, at most, a few flies. The size of the fly populations on the untreated animals varied with the seasons, with the most flies being recorded during the wet season. Light coloured animals carried fewer flies than those with darker colours and bullocks carried more flies than steers. Except for steers in one dry season, repeatabilities of fly counts were significant (P < 0.01). In steers, treatment had no significant (P > 0.05) effect on growth over the four treatment periods, although there were significant effects of treatment on growth in some intermediate periods. Treatment significantly (P < 0.05) affected bullock growth in two of the four years. Significant (P < 0.05) positive correlations were found between fly counts and growth rate in two years. Few lesions were recorded on treated animals. Lesion prevalence and size on untreated animals were generally not associated with fly counts, coat colour or growth rate.

A study was made (1 970 to 1973) of the reproductive performance of Shorthorn and Brahman crossbred cows grazing pasture in the dry tropics of north Queensland. Breed had a variable effect on the conception rates of lactating cows, with Brahman crossbreds having significantly higher (P < 0.05) conception rates in the first year. The two breeds had similar conception rates in the following year. In the third year, overall conception rates of both breeds were reduced due to a prolonged dry season, with Shorthorn cows having significantly higher (P < 0.01) conception rates than Brahman cows. However, during this dry period, twice as many Shorthorn cows required survival feeding as did Brahman cows. Calving rates followed conception rates closely, prenatal loss in each breed being low. In all years, Shorthorns had significantly earlier (P < 0.05) calving dates than Brahmans. The interval from calving to first recorded ovarian activity was significantly longer (P < 0.05) in Brahman cross than in Shorthorn cows in only one of the three years. There was no significant difference between breeds for the interval from first recorded ovarian activity to conception, but this interval decreased with increasing age of the cow. Breed had a variable effect on gestation length. Brahman cows were generally heavier each year in April and in better condition throughout the experimental period than Shorthorn cows.

Factors influencing the conception rates of 1332 Bos indicus cross maiden heifers in the dry tropics of North Queensland were studied between 1973 and 1986. The heifers, which were 112 and 314 Bos indicus (Brahman or Sahiwal) crosses with Bos taurus, were mated at 24-27 months of age over a 3-month period commencing in mid to late January. The effects of liveweights and growth rates on conception rate were initially assessed in separate models which always included cohort (year of branding group) as an additional factor. Cohort and liveweight at weaning, 18 months of age or the start of mating significantly (P<0.05) affected conception rate in maiden heifers. Response to liveweight was curvilinear, being marked for liveweights up to 125-150 kg at weaning, 200-225 kg at 18 months of age and 225-250 kg at the start of mating, with reduced response for greater liveweights. Liveweights of about 270 kg were indicated as targets at the start of mating in a typical year to achieve an 80% conception rate. Average daily gains during the post-weaning dry season and the dry season prior to mating did not influence conception rates after adjusting for cohort. Further analyses using models incorporating both liveweight and growth rate with and without the cohort effect gave indications that the significant cohort effect on conception rate was partly related to post-weaning dry season growth rate. F2 et seq. maiden heifers with low liveweights at either 18 months of age or mating had appreciably higher conception rates if they had gained weight in the post-weaning dry season, rather than losing weight.

Monument Valley, Instagram, and the Closed Circle of Representation

The effect of phosphorus supplementation on the performance of steeres grazing unfertilized native pasture and Townsville stylo (Stylosanthes humilis) with andwithout superphosphate fertilizer on the subcoastal spear grass region of the dry tropics of north Queensland was studied over a period of 40 months. Liveweight gains in the absence of supplementation on fertilized Townsville stylo pastures were greater than on unfertilized Townsville stylo, where performance was similar to that recorded on untreated native pasture. Phosphorus supplementation increased weight gains during the wet season on both unfertilized Townsville stylo and native pasture but had no significant effect on dry season performance or performance on fertilized Townsville stylo. Fertilized areas became dominated by annual grasses, Digitaria ciliaris and Brachiaria milliiformis, and legume yields were higher on unfertilized than on fertilized areas. Fertilizer improved the quality of available pastures.

Growth rates during the 18-21 months following weaning for 216 F1 Brahman x Shorthorn and 216 F1 Sahiwal x Shorthorn animals were studied during the years 1970-1975 in the dry tropics of north Queensland. Growth rates tended to favour Sahiwal crosses from weaning to 18 months and Brahman crosses from 18 to 30 months. Weight per day of age at about 800 days was similar in both genotypes in two of the three drafts. Steers outperformed heifers throughout and were 8 per cent heavier at 800 days. Carcase weight sof the steers were similar in two of the three drafts, but Sahiwal crosses had higher dressing percentages. In a group of steers boned-out under commercial conditions, Sahiwal crosses had more fat trim than Brahman crosses (7.4 vs. 5.9 per cent) and slightly less saleable meat (73.2 vs. 74.3 per cent). Birth weight, pre-weaning gain and corrected 180-day weight were positively correlated with final liveweight. Pre-weaning gain and post-weaning gain were poorly correlated. Yearling weight (approx. 500 days) was generally independent of cow age.

The performance of steers grazing Townsville stylo (Stylosanthes humilis)-native grass pasture, with and without superphosphate fertilizer, was studied at two stocking rate (0.41 and 0.82 beasts ha-1) on the sub-coastal spear grass region of the dry tropics of north Queensland over a period of three and a half years. Fertilizer increased yield and quality of pasture, but invasion of the fertilized areas by annual grass species was occurring by the end of the study. Liveweight gains on fertilized Townsville stylo pastures were greater than on unfertilized Townsville stylo, where performance was similar to that recorded on untreated native pasture at stocking rates of 0.25 and 0.41 beasts ha-1. Liveweight gains at the lighter stocking rate were greater than at the higher level on the Townsville stylo-native grass pasture, but at the stocking rates applied to native pasture there was no significant effect of stocking rate. A stocking rate of 0.41 beast ha-1 on fertilized Townsville stylo was safe in all years. Wastage of material was high owing to mould development on the Townsville stylo which remained as standing hay during the winter.

Modelling seawater intrusion in the Burdekin Delta Irrigation Area, North Queensland, Australia

Systems for vegetable production in the dry tropics of North Queensland, Australia, have been dominated by intensive tillage and extensive use of nonrenewable polyethylene inputs. A field trial was established to investigate agronomic practices and soil health changes in capsicum and zucchini crops grown with intensive tillage and permanent bed systems. In 2011, conventional intensive tillage with 'plasticulture' was compared to a permanent bed system with subsurface drip irrigation, no soil disturbance and organic mulch produced from a summer sorghum crop. Soil compaction was a major production constraint in the permanent beds in 2011, along with water and nutrient management. Compared to intensive tillage, marketable yield in permanent beds had reductions of 70 and 30%, respectively in capsicum and zucchini. In 2012, the same intensive tillage system was compared to a permanent bed system where minimal soil disturbance had been produced by zone tillage in 10% of the cropped area. It was also compared to a modified system which had permanent beds and zone till but, in addition, had a polyethylene film mulch over the planting beds. The zone tillage and improved fertigation management in 2012 led to marketable yields that were not significantly different among the three tillage systems. In 2013, crops in permanent beds covered with a biodegradable film instead of polyethylene film, had marketable yields that were comparable to the intensive tillage system. Results from the first three years of this study gave indication that minimum tillage has the potential to provide acceptable marketable yields with less dependence on polyethylene use.

Data from 533 calves from 321 Shorthorn cows at 'Swan's Lagoon', north Queensland, were analysed by the least-squares method. Calves were sired by either Sahiwal or Brahman bulls. Birth weights, growth rates and corrected 180-day weights were comparable in Brahman and Sahiwal cross calves. Age of dam had a significant effect on performance with cows 5-8 years and 9+ years producing heavier calves than cows 3-4 years of age. Calves born early in the season were significantly superior to calves born later and males outperformed females throughout, being 8-9 per cent heavier at 180 days. Pre-calving weight of the cow was positively correlated with calf growth rate and 180 day weight. Calf gains were inversely related to cow gains from birth to weaning. Calf birth weight was significantly correlated with calf growth rate and 180-day weight.

Protective cropping could be an effective system for growing specialty melons in the dry tropics of North Queensland. The growing system could reduce outdoor risks for production loss, improve fruit quality, increase yield per m2, allow production offseason, and used for supplying niche markets in a segment of the larger melon market in Australia. First evaluations in Giru, Queensland, included seven cultivars of fruit types 'Galia', 'Hami', 'Charentais', small 'Canary', and 'Rockmelon', transplanted July 25, 2013 under a high polyethylene-covered tunnel. Plants were grown at a density of 2.8 plants m-2 in containers filled with volcanic rock and irrigated with a complete nutrient solution. Pruning and trellising was done to a single vertical stem, keeping lateral shoots on the main stem after the 7th leaf node. After bearing small fruit, lateral shoots were cut off after their second or third leaf node. To facilitate insect pollination, a screen window in the tunnel was left partially opened. On November 20 the cultivars had combined marketable yields that ranged from 2.8 to 8.2 fruits m-2 and 3.1 to 7.8 kg m-2. Total soluble solids levels in fruit ranged from 6 to 13 °Brix. Cultivars 'Tempo' ('Galia'), 'Tikal' ('Canary') and 'Sultan' ('Charentais') had fruit yields that were up to 2.6 times greater than yields commonly achieved with field-grown rockmelon crops. Sugar levels in fruits and marketable yields may be increased with changes in fertigation management. Promising results in this first evaluation justify examination of a greater number of genetic materials, in addition to the development of economic feasibility studies and further adaptive research to refine crop recommendations for growing melons in protective cropping systems.

Paradise Contested: Tropical Tourism, Eco-landscapes, and Cultural Resistance in Goa and Kerala