Surface tension and hygroscopicity analysis of aerosols containing organosulfate surfactants

Abstract. Organosulfate (OS) surfactants can influence cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) activation and hygroscopic growth by reducing the surface tension of aerosol particles. We investigate the surface tension and hygroscopicity of aerosols containing short- and long-chain OSs under supersaturated conditions using an electrodeformation method coupled with Raman spectroscopy. For short-chain OSs, the surface tension continues to decrease even under dry, viscous conditions. Sodium ethyl sulfate (SES) lowered surface tension to approximately 30 mN m-1, a value lower than that of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) at its critical micelle concentration. We also studied ternary systems containing OSs with citric acid (CA) or sodium chloride (NaCl). Even small amounts of SDS, with a molar ratio of 10-3 relative to CA, reduce surface tension by up to 40 % at low relative humidity (RH) compared to CA alone. Despite strong surface tension reduction, ternary OS–CA–water systems show hygroscopicity nearly identical to binary CA–water systems, suggesting that surface tension does not influence water uptake under subsaturated conditions. Ternary systems containing NaCl and OS undergo efflorescence at 47 % RH, but the crystallized NaCl becomes partially engulfed. If the RH is subsequently increased, the coating takes up water. At the deliquescence point (72 % RH), the particle becomes homogeneous again. These findings improve our understanding of particle growth and cloud drop formation processes, which influence cloud properties like albedo and lifetime.

Abstract. Discontinuities in apparent hygroscopicity below and above water saturation have been observed for organic and mixed organic–inorganic aerosol particles in both laboratory studies and in the ambient atmosphere. However, uncertainty remains regarding the factors that contribute to observations of low hygroscopic growth below water saturation but enhanced cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) activity for a given aerosol population. Utilizing laboratory surrogates for oligomers in atmospheric aerosols, we explore the extent to which such discontinuities are influenced by organic component molecular mass and viscosity, non-ideal thermodynamic interactions between aerosol components, and the combination of these factors. Measurements of hygroscopic growth under subsaturated conditions and the CCN activity of aerosols comprised of polyethylene glycol (PEG) with average molecular masses ranging from 200 to 10 000 g mol−1 and mixtures of PEG with ammonium sulfate (AS) were conducted. Experimental results are compared to calculations of hygroscopic growth at thermodynamic equilibrium conducted with the Aerosol Inorganic Organic Mixtures Functional groups Activity Coefficients (AIOMFAC) model, and the potential influence of kinetic limitations on observed water uptake was further explored through estimations of water diffusivity in the PEG oligomers. Particle-phase behavior, including the prevalence of liquid–liquid phase separation (LLPS), was also modeled with AIOMFAC. Under subsaturated relative humidity (RH) conditions, we observed little variability in hygroscopic growth across PEG systems with different molecular masses; however, an increase in CCN activity with increasing PEG molecular mass was observed. This effect is most pronounced for PEG–AS mixtures, and, in fact, an enhancement in CCN activity was observed for the PEG10000–AS mixture as compared to pure AS, as evidenced by a 15 % reduction in critical activation diameter at a supersaturation of 0.8 %. We also observed a marked increase in apparent hygroscopicity for mixtures of higher molecular mass PEG and AS under supersaturated conditions as compared to subsaturated hygroscopic growth. AIOMFAC-based predictions and estimations of water diffusivity in PEG suggest that such discontinuities in apparent hygroscopicity above and below water saturation can be attributed, at least in part, to differences in the sensitivity of water uptake behavior to surface tension effects. There is no evidence that kinetic limitations to water uptake due to the presence of viscous aerosol components influenced hygroscopic growth. For the systems that display an enhancement in apparent hygroscopicity above water saturation, LLPS is predicted to persist to high RH. This indicates a miscibility gap and is likely to influence bulk-to-surface partitioning of PEG at high RH, impacting droplet surface tension and CCN activity. This work provides insight into the factors likely to be contributing to discontinuities in aerosol water-uptake behavior below and above water saturation that have been observed previously in the ambient atmosphere.

Abstract. Secondary Organic Aerosols (SOA) studied in previous laboratory experiments generally showed only slight hygroscopic growth, but a much better activity as a CCN (Cloud Condensation Nucleus) than indicated by the hygroscopic growth. This discrepancy was examined at LACIS (Leipzig Aerosol Cloud Interaction Simulator), using a portable generator that produced SOA particles from the ozonolysis of α-pinene, and adding butanol or butanol and water vapor during some of the experiments. The light scattering signal of dry SOA-particles was measured by the LACIS optical particle spectrometer and was used to derive a refractive index for SOA of 1.45. LACIS also measured the hygroscopic growth of SOA particles up to 99.6% relative humidity (RH), and a CCN counter was used to measure the particle activation. SOA-particles were CCN active with critical diameters of e.g. 100 nm and 55 nm at super-saturations of 0.4% and 1.1%, respectively. But only slight hygroscopic growth with hygroscopic growth factors ≤1.05 was observed at RH<98% RH. At RH>98%, the hygroscopic growth increased stronger than would be expected if a constant hygroscopicity parameter for the particle/droplet solution was assumed. An increase of the hygroscopicity parameter by a factor of 4–6 was observed in the RH-range from below 90% to 99.6%, and this increase continued for increasingly diluted particle solutions for activating particles. This explains an observation already made in the past: that the relation between critical super-saturation and dry diameter for activation is steeper than what would be expected for a constant value of the hygroscopicity. Combining measurements of hygroscopic growth and activation, it was found that the surface tension that has to be assumed to interpret the measurements consistently is greater than 55 mN/m, possibly close to that of pure water, depending on the different SOA-types produced, and therefore only in part accounts for the discrepancy between hygroscopic growth and CCN activity observed for SOA particles in the past.

Size‐segregated measurements of cloud condensation nucleus (CCN) activity and hygroscopic growth were performed simultaneously for sulfate‐rich aerosols at Cape Hedo, Okinawa, Japan, in spring 2008. The CCN fractions as functions of particle size at water vapor supersaturations of 0.44%, 0.25%, and 0.10% had nearly stepwise increases, and the diameters for 50% activation of its maximum (dact) were close to that of (NH4)2SO4. The size‐resolved hygroscopic growth factor g measured using a hygroscopicity tandem differential mobility analyzer at 85% relative humidity (RH) mainly showed unimodal and highly hygroscopic characteristics. The observed characteristics as well as aerosol mass spectrometer data suggest the dominance of internally mixed ammoniated sulfate‐rich particles. A clear negative correlation between dact and median g (gmedian) was observed for Aitken‐mode particles, and backward air mass trajectories indicate lower dact and higher g of the aerosols from China and the Pacific and the opposite tendency for those from Korea and Japan. The size dependence of gmedian suggests that less hygroscopic carbonaceous components were more enriched in Aitken‐mode particles and therefore affect the CCN activity and hygroscopicity. The CCN activation diameters were predicted on the basis of gmedian using a core‐shell model. The modeled activation diameters reasonably agreed with measured dact, suggesting that the surface tension lowering effect due to organics and the enhancement of bulk hygroscopicity at high RH due to sparingly soluble or polymeric compounds were small. The results suggest that CCN activity of sulfate‐rich aerosol particles is predicted well in regional and global aerosol models without incorporating these effects.

<p>Pollen grains emitted from vegetation can release subpollen particles (SPP) that contribute to the fine fraction of atmospheric aerosols and may act as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), ice nuclei (IN), or aeroallergens. Here, we investigate and characterize the hygroscopic growth and CCN activation of birch, pine, and rapeseed SPP. A high humidity tandem differential mobility analyzer (HHTDMA) was used to measure particle restructuring and water uptake over a wide range of relative humidity (RH) from 2 % to 99.5 %, and a continuous flow CCN counter was used for size-resolved measurements of CCN activation at supersaturations (S) in the range of 0.2 % to 1.2 %. For both subsaturated and supersaturated conditions, effective hygroscopicity parameters к , were obtained by Köhler model calculations. Gravimetric and chemical analyses, electron microscopy, and dynamic light scattering measurements were performed to characterize further properties of SPP from aqueous pollen extracts such as chemical composition (starch, proteins, DNA, and inorganic ions) and the hydrodynamic size distribution of water-insoluble material. All investigated SPP samples exhibited a sharp increase of water uptake and k above ~95 % RH, suggesting a liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS). The HHTDMA measurements at RH> 95% enable closure between the CCN activation at water vapor supersaturation and hygroscopic growth at subsaturated conditions, which is often not achieved when HTDMA measurements are performed at lower RH where the water uptake and effective hygroscopicity may be limited by the effects of LLPS. Such effects may be important not only for closure between hygroscopic growth and CCN activation but also for the chemical reactivity, allergenic potential, and related health effects of SPP.</p><p>This research has been supported by the Russian Science Foundation (grant no. 18-10 17-00076) and Max Planck Society.</p>

Abstract. The link between measured sub-saturated hygroscopicity and cloud activation potential of secondary organic aerosol particles produced by the chamber photo-oxidation of α-pinene in the presence or absence of ammonium sulphate seed aerosol was investigated using two models of varying complexity. A simple single hygroscopicity parameter model and a more complex model (incorporating surface effects) were used to assess the detail required to predict the cloud condensation nucleus (CCN) activity from the sub-saturated water uptake. Sub-saturated water uptake measured by three hygroscopicity tandem differential mobility analyser (HTDMA) instruments was used to determine the water activity for use in the models. The predicted CCN activity was compared to the measured CCN activation potential using a continuous flow CCN counter. Reconciliation using the more complex model formulation with measured cloud activation could be achieved widely different assumed surface tension behavior of the growing droplet; this was entirely determined by the instrument used as the source of water activity data. This unreliable derivation of the water activity as a function of solute concentration from sub-saturated hygroscopicity data indicates a limitation in the use of such data in predicting cloud condensation nucleus behavior of particles with a significant organic fraction. Similarly, the ability of the simpler single parameter model to predict cloud activation behaviour was dependent on the instrument used to measure sub-saturated hygroscopicity and the relative humidity used to provide the model input. However, agreement was observed for inorganic salt solution particles, which were measured by all instruments in agreement with theory. The difference in HTDMA data from validated and extensively used instruments means that it cannot be stated with certainty the detail required to predict the CCN activity from sub-saturated hygroscopicity. In order to narrow the gap between measurements of hygroscopic growth and CCN activity the processes involved must be understood and the instrumentation extensively quality assured. It is impossible to say from the results presented here due to the differences in HTDMA data whether: i) Surface tension suppression occurs ii) Bulk to surface partitioning is important iii) The water activity coefficient changes significantly as a function of the solute concentration.

Abstract. Aliphatic amines can form secondary aerosol via oxidation with atmospheric radicals (e.g., hydroxyl radical and nitrate radical). The particle can contain both secondary organic aerosol (SOA) and inorganic salts. The ratio of organic to inorganic materials in the particulate phase influences aerosol hygroscopicity and cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) activity. SOA formed from trimethylamine (TMA) and butylamine (BA) reactions with hydroxyl radical (OH) is composed of organic material of low hygroscopicity (single hygroscopicity parameter, κ, ≤ 0.25). Secondary aerosol formed from the tertiary aliphatic amine (TMA) with N2O5 (source of nitrate radical, NO3) contains less volatile compounds than the primary aliphatic amine (BA) aerosol. As relative humidity (RH) increases, inorganic amine salts are formed as a result of acid–base reactions. The CCN activity of the humid TMA–N2O5 aerosol obeys Zdanovskii, Stokes, and Robinson (ZSR) ideal mixing rules. The humid BA + N2O5 aerosol products were found to be very sensitive to the temperature at which the measurements were made within the streamwise continuous-flow thermal gradient CCN counter; κ ranges from 0.4 to 0.7 dependent on the instrument supersaturation (ss) settings. The variance of the measured aerosol κ values indicates that simple ZSR rules cannot be applied to the CCN results from the primary aliphatic amine system. Overall, aliphatic amine aerosol systems' κ ranges within 0.2 < κ < 0.7. This work indicates that aerosols formed via nighttime reactions with amines are likely to produce hygroscopic and volatile aerosol, whereas photochemical reactions with OH produce secondary organic aerosol of lower CCN activity. The contributions of semivolatile secondary organic and inorganic material from aliphatic amines must be considered for accurate hygroscopicity and CCN predictions from aliphatic amine systems.

Hygroscopic properties of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formed by photooxidation of different concentrations (10-27 or 220-270 ppb) of alpha-pinene precursor were investigated at different relative humidities (RH) using a hygroscopicity tandem differential mobility analyzer (HTDMA, RH=95-97%) and using the mobile version of the Leipzig Aerosol Cloud Interaction Simulator (LACIS-mobile, RH=98-99.3%). In addition, the cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) activity was measured applying two CCN counters (CCNC). An apparent single-hygroscopicity parameter, kappa, of approximately 0.09, approximately 0.07-0.13, and approximately 0.02-0.04 was derived from CCNC, HTDMA and LACIS data, respectively, assuming the surface tension of pure water. Closure between HTDMA and CCNC data was achieved within experimental uncertainty, whereas closure between LACIS and CCNC was only achieved by assuming a concentration-dependent surface tension reduction, consequently resulting in lower CCNC-derived kappa values. Comparing different experimental techniques at varying precursor concentrations in more detail reveals further open questions. Varying precursor concentration influences hygroscopic growth factors at subsaturated RH, while it has no effect on the CCN activation. This difference in behaviour might be caused by precursor concentration-dependent surface tension depression or changing droplet solution concentration dependence of the water activity coefficient with varying SOA composition. Furthermore, evidence was found that the SOA might need several seconds to reach the equilibrium growth factor at high RH.

High time-resolution measurement of light scattering hygroscopic growth factor in Beijing: A novel method for high relative humidity conditions

Modification of cloud condensation nucleus activity of organic aerosols by hydroxyl radical heterogeneous oxidation

This work presents experimental data on the cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) activity of two‐component mixtures containing surfactants. Nine binary systems were tested combining strong ionic (sodium dodecyl sulfate) and nonionic surfactants (Zonyl FS‐300 and Triton X‐100) with nonsurfactant compounds (glucose, ammonium sulfate, or sodium chloride). Control tests were performed for systems combining organic (glucose) and inorganic compounds (ammonium sulfate or sodium chloride). Results show that CCN activity deviates strongly relative to predictions made from measurements of bulk surface tension. Köhler theory accounting for surface tension reduction and surface partitioning underpredicts the CCN activity of particles containing Zonyl FS‐300 and Triton X‐100. Partitioning theory better describes data for Zonyl FS‐300 and Triton X‐100 when limiting surface adsorption to 1.5 monolayers of the growing drop. Deviations from predictions were observed. Likely explanations include solute‐solute interactions and nonspherical particle shape. The findings presented here examine in detail the perturbation of CCN activity by surfactants and may offer insight into both the success and limitations of physical models describing CCN activity of surface active molecules.

The hygroscopic growth (HG) of humic‐like substances (HULIS) extracted from smoke and pollution aerosol particles and of Suwannee River fulvic acid (SRFA, bulk and fractions of different molecular weight) was measured by humidity tandem differential mobility analyzer (H‐TDMA). By characterizing physical and chemical parameters such as molecular weight, elemental composition, and surface tension, we test the effect of these parameters on particle interactions with water vapor. For molecular weight‐fractionated SRFA fractions, the growth factor at 90% relative humidity was generally inversely proportional to the molecular weight. HULIS extracts from ambient particles are more hygroscopic than all the SRFA fractions and exhibit different hygroscopic properties depending on their origin and residence time in the atmosphere. The results point out some dissimilarities between SRFA and aerosol‐derived HULIS. The cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) behavior of the studied materials was predicted on the basis of hygroscopic growth using a recently introduced approach of Kreidenweis et al. (2005) and compared to CCN activity measurements on the same samples (Dinar et al., 2006). It is found that the computational approach (Kreidenweis et al., 2005) works reasonably well for SRFA fractions but is limited in use for the HULIS extracts from aerosol particles. The difficulties arise from uncertainties associated with HG measurements at high relative humidity, which leads to large errors in the predicted CCN activity.

[1] This work explores the cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) activity of isoprene secondary organic aerosol (SOA), likely a significant source of global organic particulate matter and CCN, produced from the oxidation with OH from HONO/HOOH photolysis in a temperature-controlled SOA chamber. CCN concentrations, activation diameter, and droplet growth kinetic information were monitored as a function of supersaturation (from 0.3% to 1.5%) for several hours using a cylindrical continuous-flow streamwise thermal gradient CCN counter connected to a scanning mobility particle sizer. The initial SOA concentrations ranged from 2 to 30 μg m−3 and presented CCN activity similar to monoterpene SOA with an activation diameter of 35 nm for 1.5% supersaturation and 72 nm for 0.6% supersaturation. The CCN activity improved slightly in some experiments as the SOA aged chemically and did not depend significantly on the level of NOx during the SOA production. The measured activation diameters correspond to a hygroscopicity parameter κ value of 0.12, similar to κ values of 0.1 ± 0.04 reported for monoterpene SOA. Analysis of the water-soluble carbon extracted from filter samples of the SOA suggest that it has a κ of 0.2–0.3 implying an average molar mass between 90 and 150 g mol−1 (assuming a zero and 5% surface tension reduction with respect to water, respectively). These findings are consistent with known oxidation products of isoprene. Using threshold droplet growth analysis, the CCN activation kinetics of isoprene SOA was determined to be similar to pure ammonium sulfate aerosol.

Abstract. Surface-active compounds present in aerosols can increase their cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) activation efficiency by reducing the surface tension (σ) in the growing droplets. However, the importance of this effect is poorly constrained by measurements. Here we present estimates of droplet surface tension near the point of activation derived from direct measurement of droplet diameters using a continuous flow streamwise thermal gradient chamber (CFSTGC). The experiments used sea spray aerosol (SSA) mimics composed of NaCl coated by varying amounts of (i) oleic acid, palmitic acid or myristic acid, (ii) mixtures of palmitic acid and oleic acid, and (iii) oxidized oleic acid. Significant reductions in σ relative to that for pure water were observed for these mimics at relative humidity (RH) near activation (∼ 99.9 %) when the coating was sufficiently thick. The calculated surface pressure (π = σH2O − σobserved) values for a given organic compound or mixture collapse onto one curve when plotted as a function of molecular area for different NaCl seed sizes and measured RH. The observed critical molecular area (A0) for oleic acid determined from droplet growth was similar to that from experiments conducted using macroscopic solutions in a Langmuir trough. However, the observations presented here suggest that oleic acid in microscopic droplets may exhibit larger π values during monolayer compression. For myristic acid, the observed A0 compared well to macroscopic experiments on a fresh subphase, for which dissolution has an important impact. A significant kinetic limitation to water uptake was observed for NaCl particles coated with pure palmitic acid, likely as a result of palmitic acid (with coating thicknesses ranging from 67 to 132 nm) being able to form a solid film. However, for binary palmitic-acid–oleic-acid mixtures there was no evidence of a kinetic limitation to water uptake. Oxidation of oleic acid had a minor impact on the magnitude of the surface tension reductions observed, potentially leading to a slight reduction in the effect compared to pure oleic acid. A CCN counter was also used to assess the impact on critical supersaturations of the substantial σ reductions observed at very high RH. For the fatty-acid-coated NaCl particles, when the organic fraction (εorg) was > 0.90 small depressions in critical supersaturation were observed. However, when εorg < 0.90 the impact on critical supersaturation was negligible. Thus, for the fatty acids considered here, the substantial σ reductions observed at high RH values just below activation have limited impact on the ultimate critical supersaturation. A surface film model is used to establish the properties that surface-active organic molecules must have if they are to ultimately have a substantial impact on the activation efficiency of SSA. To influence activation, the average properties of surface-active marine-derived organic molecules must differ substantially from the long-chain fatty acids examined, having either smaller molecular volumes or larger molecular areas. The model results also indicate that organic-compound-driven surface tension depression can serve to buffer the critical supersaturation against changes to the organic-to-salt ratio in particles in which the organic fraction is sufficiently large.

The heterogeneous reaction of hydroxyl radicals with chemically reduced organic aerosol comprised of either squalane or bis(2-ethylhexyl) sebacate are used as model systems to examine how cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) activity evolves with photochemical oxidation. Over the course of the reaction, the critical super-saturation evolves both by the formation of new oxygen functional groups and by changes in aerosol size through the formation of gas phase reaction products. A statistical model of the heterogeneous reaction reveals that it is the formation, volatilization, solubility, and surface activity of many generations of oxidation products that together control the average changes in aerosol hygroscopicity. The experimental observations and model demonstrate the importance of considering the underlying population or subpopulation of species within a particle and how they each uniquely contribute to the average hygroscopicity of a multi-component aerosol. To accurately predict changes in CCN activity upon oxidation requires a reduction in the surface tension of the activating droplet by a subpopulation of squalane reaction products. These results provide additional evidence that surface tension-concentration parameterizations based on macroscopic data should be modified for microscopic droplets.