Supporting Education-Focused Careers in Management Education

In Search of Scholarly Impact

Career counsellors working at schools are expected to promote students’ social, emotional, academic, and career development (Lindwall & Coleman, 2008). Despite the importance of career counselling at school (Anctil, Smith, Schenck, & Dahir, 2012; Osborn & Baggerly, 2004), school counsellors face barriers to implementing career counselling, including limited time because of competing demands, negative perceptions about career counselling from parents, teachers, and administration, and low school counsellor self-efficacy (Sanders, Welfare, & Culver, 2017). Considering the importance of career counselling and challenging working conditions, studies usually focus on individual antecedents of effective career counselling (Sawyer et al., 2013). Existing research reveals that self-efficacious consultants provide higher-quality career consulting services to various groups of employees (Bodenhorn & Skaggs, 2005; Larson & Daniels, 1998), are more satisfied with their job and experience less stress (Lent & Hackett, 1987). According to Larson and Daniels (1998), self-efficacy is the essential factor of successful career counselling. However, existing studies do not disclose the mechanism of why career consultants with higher self-efficacy perform consulting activities better. Therefore, this study is aimed to analyse the role of self-efficacy in the relationship between job resources (opportunity to develop and feedback), satisfaction with career counselling and goal attainment among career counsellors working at schools. The study was part of the project “Strategies to Utilise and Cultivate Positive Characteristics & Employability Skills in Schools” (SUCCESS, 2017-12-LT01-KA201-035247). In total, 246 school career counsellors from Lithuania, Italy, Ireland, and Greece were surveyed online. Most of the participants (88.6 percent) were female, and their age varied between 25 and 60 years. In all countries, the professional experience of career counselling varied between 1 and more than 10 years.The results of the study revealed the importance of self-efficacy for satisfaction with career counselling and goal attainment. Self-efficacy moderated the relationship between the opportunity for development and feedback and satisfaction with career counselling, i. e. the opportunity for development and feedback and satisfaction predicted satisfaction with career counselling only when self-efficacy was high. Furthermore, the opportunity for development and feedback were indirectly related to goal attainment through satisfaction with career counselling only when self-efficacy was high. In other words, job resources are more important and better used by those career counsellors who rely on their abilities, can remain calm when facing difficulties in their job and find solutions when confronted with a problem. The limitations of the study together with practical implications are discussed.

Nearly a century ago, Frank Parsons established the Vocation Bureau in Boston and spawned the development of the counseling profession. Elaborating on Parsons's socially responsible vision for counseling, the authors examine contemporary perspectives on career decision making that include both rational and alternative models and propose that these models be integrated. Returning to counseling's roots in early 20th century social and political reformation movements could ultimately lead the profession to a renewed vision that comprehends career decision making and counseling as a socially situated process entailing purposeful reasoning, prudent intuition, and sustained efforts at ameliorating social injustice.

Current state and national mandates focusing on academic achievement have drawn critical counseling resources away from career development. As the world of work radically changes and economic situations remain uncertain, the call for a return to school counseling roots based in career guidance has never been louder. The authors explore reoccurring career guidance trends throughout the history of school counseling to expand awareness of the basis of today's career and technical education discussions and increase understanding of the interconnectedness of career guidance and counseling and educational reform.

In recent years, career development and career counseling have increasingly been informed by concepts emanating from the constructivist worldview. For example, the Systems Theory Framework (STF; M. McMahon, 2002; M. McMahon & W. Patton, 1995; W. Patton & M. McMahon, 1997, 1999) of career development has been proposed as a metatheoretical account of career development. Furthermore, its theoretical constructs may be applied to career counseling. Thus, the STF provides a theoretical and practical consistency to career counseling and addresses concerns about a gulf between career theory and practice. This article discusses the practical application of the STF of career development as a guide to career counseling.

PART I. CAREER COUNSELING PERSPECTIVES 1. Introduction Some Perspectives of Personal and Career Development Counseling Multidimensional Influences Shape Behavior Focusing on Multiple Life Roles The Pervasive Nature of Psychological Disorders The Pervasive Nature of Work Stress The Case for Each Client's Cognitive Schemas Recognizing and Uncovering Constraints of Career Choice Cultural diversity and Acculturation Summary Supplementary Learning Exercises 2. Career Development theories - An Overview Career Development Theories Trait Oriented Theories Trait Oriented Theories in Perspective Social Learning and Cognitive Theories Social Learning and cognitive Theories in Perspectives Developmental Theories of Career Choice Developmental Theories of Career Choice in Perspective Person-in-Environment Perspective Summary of Career Development Theory Perspectives Summary Supplementary Learning Exercises 3. Career Counseling Practices A Learning Theory of Career Counseling Intake Interview Using Assessment Results for Career Counseling Interventions Whole Person Approach to Career and Personal Concerns Summary Supplementary Learning Exercises 4. Constraints Effecting Career Choice and Development Model of American Class Structure Socioeconomic Status (SES) Social Class and Socialization Potential Career Choice Constraints Self-Efficacy for Effective Behavior Summary Supplementary Learning Exercises 5. Career Choice and Development and the Changing Nature of Work Initial Career Choice-The Shaping Process Career Choice Perspectives From Career Development Theories Career Choice-Central Component of a Person's Identity Economic Restructuring A Prevalent Career Model-Boundaryless Careers Contract Breach Some Career Barriers Summary Supplementary Learning Exercises PART II: MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES AND SOLUTIONS 6. Depression and its Impact on Career Development Biopsychosocial Model Development of Mood Disorder-Depression Biological Dimensions Psychological Dimensions Learned Helplessness and Depression Social and Cultural Dimensions The Career Counseling Connection Summary Supplementary Learning Exercises 7. Other Mental Health and Career Concerns Concerns Associated with Apprehension and Fear Some Causes of Anxiety Disorders Intervention Strategies Concerns Associated with Fear of Social Situations and Being Around Others Influences That Can Lead to Social Phobic Behavior Effective Interventions Fear of Health Problems That are Non-Existent Effective Interventions Substance-Related Disorders Some Causes of Substance Abuse Effective Interventions Biological Interventions Psychological Interventions Social Interventions The Career Work Connection Schizophrenia Some Causes of Schizophrenia Interventions Summary Supplementary Learning Exercises 8. Cultural Diversity Dimensions Some Perspectives on Culture Culturally Developed Cognitive Schemas The Cultural Self and its Career Development Implications Focus on Some Different Worldviews in the Helping Process Family Views Competition versus Cooperation Communication Styles Locus of Control Some Mental Issues of Cultural Groups Abnormality: Universal and Culture Specific Factors Anxiety Disorders Mood Disorder-Depression Personality Disorders Schizophrenia Somatoform Disorders Summary Supplementary Learning Exercises 9. Personality Development, Disorders and its Impact on Career Some Personality Factors in Perspective Secure Relationships Personal Goals Gender and Cultural Diversity Issues Personality Disorders Class A Personality Disorders Class A Personality Disorders in Perspective Class B Personality Disorders Class B Personality Disorders in Perspective Class C Personality Disorders Class C Personality Disorders in Perspective An Overview of Personality Disorders Summary Supplementary Learning Exercises 10. Assessing Personality Development Through Personality Inventories Personality Factors From the 16 PF Questionnaire Global or Second-Order Factors An Integrative Perspective The NEO-Personality Inventory-Revised Some Big Factor Research Results Implications for Interventions From the Neo-PI-R Profile Personality-Outcome Relationships Summary Supplementary Learning Exercises 11. Work Stress Stress Process From an Interactionist Viewpoint Type A Behavior Job Stressors Work Overload Technostress Under and Over Promotion Spillover Electronic Performance Monitoring Work Stressors in Specific Occupations Dimensions of Psychological Well Being and Good Mental Health Work/Family Stress Coping Strategies to Reduce Effects of Stress Self-Efficacy Self-Esteem Social Support Cultural Diversity Issues Summary Supplementary Learning Exercises 12. Interventions and Case Studies Cognitive-Behavioral Techniques Problem Solving Assertiveness Training and Behavioral Rehearsal Systematic Desensitization Cognitive-Restructuring Cognitive Schemas Ellis's A-B-C Theory of Personality Self-Enhancing Thoughts Homework Assignments Behavior Changes by Meichenbaum Stress Inoculation Training The Case of John, A Very Anxious Person The Case of Corrina, A Hypochondriac The Case of Yolanda With Symptoms of a Borderline Personality Disorder Summary Supplementary Learning Exercises Appendix A: Acculturation Scales Appendix B: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR) Classification System (APA, 2000) References Name Index Subject Index About the Author

Historically, perhaps because of its matching process traditions, career counselling has tended to be viewed more simplistically than other fields of counselling. However, in the latter part of the 20th century the career development industry witnessed rapid growth and seems set for a promising future. Such growth has corresponded with irreversible change in the world of work, the emergence of lifelong learning as integral to people's careers, and broader and more holistic definitions of career and career development that have gained widespread acceptance. With the increased influence of constructivism, career counselling has emerged from its vocational guidance origins as a profession in its own right. Increasingly, policymakers are recognizing the importance of career guidance and counselling in assisting to achieve policy goals related to lifelong learning, employment, and social equity. Thus, closer links have been created between policymakers and practitioner associations such as the Australian Association of Career Counsellors (AACC). Such intense focus on career guidance and counselling has also resulted in closer scrutiny of its professional standards and qualifications. Consequently, at the same time as there being increased demand for and interest in career counselling, practitioner associations are faced with issues related to redefining their roles with members, the community, and policymakers. This article will describe the changed context of career counselling, current issues such as standards and accreditation, and redefinition of the profession. The AACC's response to these challenges will be the focus of this article.

The 21st century has brought with it considerable change in the world of work across the globe. Recent events within professional organizations and the professional literature related to career development and counseling signal interesting opportunities to address the topic of decent work. The arrival of the Psychology of Working Theory along with other theories in recent years answers Savickas’s call for the renovation and reinvigoration of the study of careers. Scholarly efforts in advancing the paradigm of Life Design and those, more recently, to address the topic of Decent Work show promise for a new direction in theory and practice of career development and counseling. The authors identify two specific pieces of the Life Design paradigm they feel may prove useful in advancing career development and career counseling toward emerging horizons.

This chapter introduces the systems theory framework (STF) of career development (McMahon & Patton, 1995; Patton & McMahon, 1999, 2006, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018). The STF incorporates systemic thinking and systemic mapping to portray career development as a dynamic and complex process negotiated by individuals in the context of their systems of influence. The STF provides a conceptual and practical map through which career development practices, such as career counselling and career education, may be systemically conceptualised. Career practitioners are encouraged to apply systemic thinking in their work in order to accommodate the context, complexity, and cultures of their clients’ career development.

There is a growing interest in teacher quality, which must encompass teacher diversity, including a more age-diverse and ageing teacher workforce. Little is known about how generational change among teachers influences professional dispositions, which are key to teacher quality. This qualitative study investigated how young beginner, mature veteran and older retired teachers in Spain characterise generational groups of teachers according to their professional dispositions. A thematic analysis of data from discussion groups and interviews (n = 24 and n = 60, respectively) showed that the participants (n = 147) identified and had a similar understanding of two core professional dispositions: a sense of vocation and the engagement that it promotes. It was also found that they attributed differences to age, career path, and significant shared experiences. This suggests that, in their perception, these aspects shape their notion of teacher generations, which is important for understanding the contextual and changing nature of professional dispositions.

Contents: Preface. H.S. Farmer, History of Career Counseling for Women. N. Betz, Basic Issues and Concepts in the Career Development and Counseling of Women. M.J. Heppner, K.M. O'Brien, Women and Poverty: A Holistic Approach to Vocational Interventions. S.D. Lonborg, G. Hackett, Career Assessment and Counseling for Women. K.M. Chronister, E.H. McWhirter, L. Forrest, A Critical Feminist Approach to Career Counseling With Women. L.A. Gilbert, L.K. Kearney, Sex, Gender, and Dual-Earner Families: Implications and Applications for Career Counseling for Women. R.P. Bingham, C.M. Ward, M.M. Butler, Career Counseling With African American Women. S.R. Ali, S.Z. Lewis, R. Sandil, Career Counseling for Asian Women. L.Y. Flores, R.L. Navarro, L. Ojeda, Career Counseling With Latinas. C. McCloskey, L. Mintz, A Culturally Oriented Approach for Career Counseling With Native American Women. K.J. Bieschke, E. Toepfer-Hendey, Career Counseling With Lesbian Clients. O. Yakushko, Career Concerns of Immigrant Women: Issues and Implications for Career Counseling. R.E. Fassinger, P.A. Asay, Career Counseling for Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Fields. J.E.A. Russell, Career Counseling for Women in Management.

In this study, the author sought to validate the effectiveness of a multivariate career and educational counseling intervention model through long‐term follow‐up of clients seen in private practice. Effectiveness was measured by clients' commitment to and enjoyment of their chosen career paths and the relationship of these factors to adherence to program recommendations. Findings indicated that 65% of clients adhered to program recommendations. Those who adhered to program recommendations were significantly more committed to their careers; however, no significant difference was found in clients' enjoyment of their careers. Additionally, 85% of clients reported that the program met their needs, and 95% would recommend the program.

Objectives The purpose of this study was to investigate students' perceptions and needs regarding the successful implementation of the high school credit system and to propose improvement tasks for career education and counseling. Methods To this end, a survey was conducted among 529 high school sophomores across five autonomous districts in Region D to assess their level of understanding, awareness, and demand for the high school credit system. Significant differences in the perceived importance and implementation were statistically verified using a t-test, while the Borich demand level formula and the Locus for Focus model were applied to identify high-demand items. Results Of the 270 students who responded (51%), they stated that they were aware of the purpose and use of the high school credit system. Additionally, 277 students (52.3%) indicated that their understanding of the curriculum was ‘below average’. Meanwhile, 406 students (76%) responded that the system was ‘helpful for personalized learning, college admission, and career choice’. The most desired aspect of the high school credit system was the development of a variety of common curricula, followed by regular career counseling. Furthermore, an analysis of the demand for the high school credit system from the perspective of vocational education and career counseling revealed that the highest priorities in vocational education were ‘on-the-job experience activities, special lectures by professionals, and academic experience activities useful for career and higher education’. In the area of career counseling, the highest priorities included the need for ‘career guidance and counseling for undecided career paths’, individual counseling for academic difficulties, counseling to provide sufficient work experience opportunities when choosing desired majors, and sessions with career counselors at school. Conclusions The implications of systematic career education and career counseling were discussed to ensure that the high school credit system is established effectively while taking into account students' careers and aptitudes.

Career Counseling with Emerging Adults

The 1st article (C. Campbell & M. Ungar, 2004) of this 2‐part exploration of postmodern approaches to family therapy and narrative approaches to career counseling explored the differences between traditional trait and factor counseling models and postmodern approaches using life narratives and social constructionism. In this 2nd article, the authors discuss 7 aspects of their practice as postmodern career counselors that ask clients to (a) know what you want, (b) know what you have, (c) know what you hear, (d) know what constrains you, (e) map your preferred story, (f) grow into your story, and (g) grow out of your story. Several case studies demonstrate the applicability of these theories to practice.