Subverting Hegemony

The history of sexual violence against Dalit women is a history of atrocity and savagery and what makes the situation even worse is the fact that the legacy of this barbaric male hegemony commodifying Dalit women and considering them to be easily available continue till date. The objective of this paper is to trace the journey of Dalit women from being sufferers of sexual abuse, violence, discrimination and deprivation to organizing and empowering themselves as a collective whole, showcasing solidarity, protesting against inequality and non-inclusivity in society, rightfully claiming their rights, raising assertive confident voices and treading towards the path of equality and inclusivity. This paper undertakes historical research to locate the position of Dalit women since centuries and depends upon findings of Case Studies to prove incidents of violence inflicted upon Dalit women. The paper also adopts Action Research to examine the actions taken by Dalit women in bringing about a much-needed change in their way of existence. References to a few Case Studies on the atrocities and brutalities unleashed on Dalit women help us further to understand the alarming nature of the situation. Dalit feminism has emerged as a separate school of thought striving towards basic dignity, safety, security, economic and social rights of Dalit women as their struggle could never be rightly assessed and addressed by mainstream feminism. Jyotiba Phule, Savitri Bai Phule and Babasaheb Ambedkar are the personalities whose contributions are unmistakable in the progress of Dali women’s living conditions. In the post-Independence era Dalit women felt the urgency to voice their needs and express their demands. They knew that the tradition of oppression meted out to them could be stopped only by their assertive voices of protests and claim for equality. In the 1990s Dalit women assembled and formed various organizations, namely All India Dalit Women’s Forum and National Federation of Dalit Women. Since then, various Dalit women’s organizations fight for equality addressing issues not only pertaining to gender but essentially based on caste discriminations. The struggle of Dalit women for achieving their rights made them participate in the 1993 World Conference against Racism and the 1995 World Conference on Women. 2006 is a landmark year for Dalit women’s movement as the first National Conference on Violence against Dalit Women was organised in New Delhi in March, 2006. In 2018 the All India Dalit Mahila Adhikar Manch presented testimonies of caste and gender based violence inflicted upon Dalit women at the 38th session of the United Nations Human Rights Council and presented a report titled ‘Voices Against Caste Impunity: Narratives of Dalit Women in India’. The assertive voices of Dalit women social activists, women-run digital rural news platform, Dalit literary writers articulating the horrors of discrimination, torture, abuse and violence they have been victims of since centuries have helped Dalit women to get unified with each other, proclaim solidarity and march towards the path of equality. They have come a long way from being docile, timid victims of caste and gender discriminations to becoming protesting selves conscious about their own rights and claiming the same.

This article undertakes a close reading of Dalit women’s autobiographical narratives to underline the folly of generalizing Dalit women as helpless exploited beings and to explore other important aspects of their lives. It is the intent of this article to explore how Dalit women use specific linguistic expressions as a symbolic way of claiming their distinct identity which in consequence results in an act of resistance against the dominant linguistic culture of Brahminical inheritance. Gopal Guru states that Dalit women ‘talk differently’ (Guru, [2016], Economic & Political Weekly, 30[42], 2548–2550), because their talking differently functions as a potential act of resistance against both casteism and patriarchy along with signifying a mark of distinct identity of their own. Furthermore, the article locates different passive strategies used by Dalit women to resist the oppressor in their everyday life, because, in many conditions, an open resistance is found to be counterproductive for them. Finally, the article investigates Dalit women’s strategies to carve a space for enjoyment and avenues of entertainment amid the pain and suffering, mostly in their work space. It is instructive to see how the work field, which is generally seen to be a place of pain and hard labour, is often used by Dalit women as a place of freedom and enjoyment.

Dalit women in India experience gender in an entirely different way from upper‐caste women because, along with gender discrimination, Dalit women face caste discrimination. Their experience of gender discrimination intersects with their caste identity, which intensifies their suffering. Dalit women experience gender‐based discrimination and social exclusion and stigma. Drawing from the Tamil movie Karnan, two Bollywood movies—200‐Halla Ho and Article15—and the Netflix web series Azib Dastan‐Geeli Pucchi (an anthology), we endeavor to answer several questions: What patterns exist in the gender‐ and caste‐based humiliation of Dalit women? How do gender and caste intersect in the humiliation and social exclusion of those women? How is their experience of gender‐based discrimination different from that of upper‐caste women? How do Dalit women assert their agency and struggle against gender and caste oppression in society? What kind of resilience do they rely upon to negotiate gender and caste discrimination? What inspires and motivates them to fight for their dignity? Despite the challenges and hurdles, how are these women achieving their aspirations?

As the lowest in the caste hierarchy, Dalits in Indian society have historically suffered caste-based social exclusion from economic, civil, cultural, and political rights. Women from this community suffer from not only discrimination based on their gender but also caste identity and consequent economic deprivation. Dalit women constituted about 16.60 percent of India’s female population in 2011. Dalit women’s problems encompass not only gender and economic deprivation but also discrimination associated with religion, caste, and untouchability, which in turn results in the denial of their social, economic, cultural, and political rights. They become vulnerable to sexual violence and exploitation due to their gender and caste. Dalit women also become victims of abhorrent social and religious practices such as devadasi/jogini (temple prostitution), resulting in sexual exploitation in the name of religion. The additional discrimination faced by Dalit women on account of their gender and caste is clearly reflected in the differential achievements in human development indicators for this group. In all the indicators of human development, for example, literacy and longevity, Dalit women score worse than Dalit men and non-Dalit women. Thus, the problems of Dalit women are distinct and unique in many ways, and they suffer from the ‘triple burden’ of gender bias, caste discrimination, and economic deprivation. To gain insights into the economic and social status of Dalit women, our paper will delve more closely into their lives and encapsulate the economic and social situations of Dalit women in India. The analyses of human poverty and caste and gender discrimination are based on official data sets as well as a number of primary studies in the labor market and on reproductive health.

This article primarily examines the role of Dalit women in the social structure of society. Dalit narration illustrates that gender, identity, and discrimination are due to their inability to make firm decisions. Indicators such as gender, identity, and discrimination offer a lens to reflect the experience of Dalit women. Much of their discrimination tends to view the social suppression strategies as insidious tools that demonstrate the cruelty inherent in caste hierarchies. The article delves into why the identity of Dalit women continues to matter and how the challenges of discrimination and identity crisis are identified in marginal Dalit society and mainstream Indian society. The findings reveal how female protagonists in The Grip of Change are testimonies of Dalit women’s undying attitude towards their goals of selfhood and agency. The article takes up various normative rights, especially gender justice and caste equality denied to the Dalit community by the hegemonic forces. In this context, the article closely explores Dalit discrimination (particularly Dalit women), which operates on multiple ramifications. This re-interpretation tries to interpret the Dalit women’s stigmatized existence, fostering Judith Butler’s theory of gender performativity and the theory of Patricia Hill Collins’ epistemological standpoint.

In Nepal, the lowest group in the Hindu caste system has been termed as Dalit. The Dalit women are a marginalized ground and continue to face caste and gender discrimination in society. In such circumstances, the Dalit women have started microfinance (MF) which have been effective in improving their income by starting businesses with small loans. The concept of social capital (SC), which is defined as trustworthiness, the norms and networks that enable people to act collectively, is getting more important in social development programs. The objective of this chapter is to verify the effectiveness of SC with specific reference to the MF programs practiced by Dalit women’s groups and investigate their relationships with Governmental Organizations and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO’s). This paper is based on field surveys including interviews conducted with Dalit women in Nepal from 2009 to 2018. The study concludes that the MF program and SC have synergistic effects, as a result of empowering such as awareness building, capacity building, and decision making on women’s group of the Dalits. It also found that NGOs have played an important role since they connect women’s groups and Nepalese geographic regions to the market economy and international networks. The empirical findings suggest that building SC through MF promotes sustainable development.

The new education policy introduced by the government has rolled out various programs aimed at uplifting the situation of women. While these initiatives are commendable, there is a glaring gap when it comes to addressing the unique challenges faced by Dalit women. These women, who belong to the most marginalized sections of society, are often left out of the broader discourse on women’s empowerment. The policies designed for their upliftment are few and far between, reflecting a systemic oversight. Even when such policies exist, Dalit women remain largely uninformed due to the lack of effective communication and outreach strategies. Their limited awareness is compounded by the daily struggles of managing household chores and enduring caste-class oppression, which further restrict their access to educational and employment opportunities. Moreover, the focus of the existing programs often leans towards low-skilled jobs, which, while providing some economic relief, fail to impart the true essence of education. Education, in its most powerful form, is a tool for empowerment and social transformation. However, the current approach reduces it to a mere means of economic survival. As a result, Dalit women, even if they manage to acquire some form of education or skill, are not equipped to challenge the socio-cultural norms that oppress them. This perpetuates a cycle where they remain disempowered, unable to break free from the shackles of caste and gender discrimination. Savitri Bai Phule, a pioneering social reformer and educator, understood the transformative power of education. She consistently emphasized that education should not only be about literacy but should also empower women to become agents of social change. Phule believed that true education would enable women to question and dismantle the structures of oppression that held them back. This paper will critically analyze the status of women in India, particularly Dalit women, through the lens of Savitri Bai Phule’s teachings. By utilizing secondary data, this study will explore how current policies fall short in realizing Phule’s vision of an empowered and socially conscious female populace, highlighting the need for a more inclusive and transformative approach to education for Dalit women.

Divisiveness among humans is so inherent, rampant and intuitive that none would find it easy to escape the oppression resulting from this man-made setback. The Human psyche covets to rule, master and exploit its power over others; and this is the core and the most intimate cause of all intolerance and oppression in our world, whatever label one wants to bracket then under, say, caste, creed, race, gender or faith. This paper titled, Grapple for Equality: A Critical Analysis of Caste and Gender Discrimination in Bama’s Vanmam (Vendetta) is an attempt to identify the gender inequality and sexual violence among Dalit women exposed by the author. The main themes of the Dalit writings in India usually centre on subjects like social disability, caste system, economic inequality, contemporary cruelties and cultural assertion that have been uniquely entitled ‘the struggle for identity’. Bama, one of the renowned Tamil Dalit woman writers, dwells on the themes of caste and gender discrimination in most of her novels. The novel Vanmam mainly focuses on Dalit women, highlighting how they are subjected to social discriminations of multiple sorts.

Dalit women suffer from multiple forms of oppression and discrimination based on gender, caste and class prejudices. This article explores the context and ramifications of emigration to the Gulf by Dalit women hailing from the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh who are mostly employed as domestic workers. Given the scarce opportunities at the place of origin, transnational migration has a meagre effect on the lives of Dalit women even as it contributes to earnings and the sustenance of household financial needs. This marginal gain, however, has a telling cost in terms of exploitative working conditions, adverse repercussions on mental and physical health as well as intra-family relations. The impact of migration on their overall welfare appears to be insignificant in the absence of state support in both origin and destination countries. The empirical analysis highlights that families of Dalit women, despite emigration, continue to reel under poverty, lack of education and remain exposed to exploitation, discrimination and state apathy.

Employment is recognized as a critical pathway for women's empowerment, yet its potential is often circumscribed by systemic barriers. This is particularly true for Dalit women in Nepal, who face the compounded burdens of gender and caste-based discrimination. This study investigates the nexus between economic participation and the empowerment of Dalit women, using a case study of Chadani Village in Mahakali Municipality. Based on a mixed-methods approach, data were collected from 50 households (25 employed and 25 unemployed Dalit women) through structured questionnaires. The findings reveal that despite a progressive national policy framework, a significant implementation gap persists. Deep-rooted discriminatory practices, illiteracy, and hierarchical cultural norms continue to limit access to health, education, and formal economic opportunities. However, the study demonstrates a clear correlation between employment and enhanced status. Employed women, especially those in government service, exhibited greater confidence, decision-making autonomy within the household, and higher social participation compared to their unemployed counterparts. The research concludes that while economic independence is a crucial catalyst for empowerment, it must be supported by a multi-faceted approach. Effective implementation of existing policies, community-based awareness campaigns, legal reforms to abolish discriminatory practices, and initiatives promoting shared domestic responsibilities are essential. Ultimately, transformative change requires empowering Dalit women economically, socially, and politically to overcome entrenched marginalization.

Feminist movements and Dalit feminist movement in India are mainly based on the experience of Repression and gender discrimination. Patriarchy, gender disparity and sexual violence are the basic reasons for these movements and they also find place prominently in the writings of Dalit women as they have come forward to write their experiences from women's point of view around 1980s. Baby Kamble, Urmila Pawar in Marathi, Geeta Nagabhushan in Kannada, P. Shivakami, Bama in Tamil have got national level consideration. Dalit women were raped; insulted and abused by the upper caste people. They are insecure in the society as they have been exploited on the various levels. This feeling of insecurity of the Dalit women is the central theme of their writings. These women writers have come forward to express their ideas, their experiences in social violence as well as in domestic violence and thus they protest their traditional existence with anger and anguish. Geeta Nagabhushan’s dalit novels, Barna’s Sangati (2005), P. Shivakani's Grip of Change (2006) are initial important writings of dalit feminism; Datit feminism writing is different from the conventional way of Feminist writing. Their experiences, expression, method of narration are extremely different from the upper caste women writers. It is found that every woman in the world has been degraded to second grade citizenship. The Dalit women in India suffer more due to their Dalit identity.

In both developing and developed countries, women play a primary source of the social-economic support of the families. Unless there is no adult male living in the family permanently, Dalit women are not considered the head of the household. Gender bias exists when it is stated that the head of the family must always be an adult male, even if a woman’s socio-economic contribution to household upkeep is equal to or higher than a man’s. Most female-headed households are unplanned, as humans rather than natural forces established them. When males leave the family or divorce for any reason, the Dalit woman is left with the massive task of looking after the children. The Dalit women-headed households belonged to a wide area to analyse the Ranipet district of Tamil Nadu. Women, on the other hand, are unaware of their rights. It is especially true for low-income women. They are also discouraged from obtaining legal help due to a lack of financial resources and the duration of the legal process. It is possible to conclude that regulations alone will not be sufficient to prevent discrimination against Dalit women. Hence, the researcher analyses the socio-economic conditions and the status and survival of women’s headed households in the Ranipet district of Tamil Nadu.

In Nepal, a large gap exists between non-dalit and dalit women in regard to maternal mortality and prenatal care. Especially rural Dalits are far behind non-dalits in utilizing prenatal care. We explored rural dalit women’s prenatal practices and barriers to accessing prenatal care. Interviews revealed that lack of cultural and economic capital, unequal domestic and economic burden, and gender and caste discrimination impact the use of prenatal care. The use of prenatal care might be improved by informing women about free services and incentives, better access and transportation, and heightened sensitivity to the situation of these women.

Hindi Dalit literature has been produced for over a century but is yet to be acknowledged by a larger mainstream audience. In this article, it is examined how generations of Dalit women lived. Experience of Hindi Dalit literature was constructed by several social, political, ideological and economic factors that together obscured the cultural identity of Dalit women. Using narrative text Dohra Abhishaap, an autobiography and testimonio in nature, written by Kausalya Baisantri, Hindi Dalit author as an entry point, this essay analyses the explicit and implicit mechanisms of Dalit women oppression that have averted Dalit women writers from consolidating their distinct identity. This article examines critically on the discourse regarding the subaltern’s failure to speak and/or be heard, and reflects Hindi Dalit literature’s triumph over casteist struggles to relegate it to the periphery. I argue that Dalit autobiographies/testimonio are indeed a medium towards change and development to represent the ‘silenced voices’.

This article draws together two studies: one that explores the intimate relationships of young slum-dwelling Dalit women in Mumbai and the other of young middle-class women in Baroda, Gujarat. Using an intersectional lens, we trace the ways that gendered ideals of respectability shape women's freedom of movement and relationships. The comparison produces new insights into the ways that class, caste, and location cut across gender to shape young women's lives in India. We argue that the distinctive positionings of the women structure the ways in which they react to gender norms and the means with which they strategize around them. Middle-class young women strike a ‘passive bargain’, upholding ideals of respectability by shoring up symbolic capital for a ‘good’ marriage and class privilege. The Dalit women show more active resistance to an ideal that they struggle to achieve, despite heavy control and surveillance over their movement and relationships. However, contrary to previous research, we show that both groups are beholden and lay claim to similar gendered and intimate ideals.