Students’ readiness for and adoption of smartphones for language learning: extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology

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Smartphone technology has significantly transformed individuals’ daily experiences and learning. Understanding students’ readiness to embrace new technologies is pivotal to implementing smartphone-assisted English language learning (SAELL). However, investigations into students’ readiness for SAELL—particularly in the context of English as a non-communicative foreign language in Chinese universities—remain limited. Therefore, this study explores students’ readiness for and perceptions of SAELL. We collect quantitative data from 1,715 students in China using an online questionnaire based on the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) framework as well as three additional novel constructs. Specifically, the UTAUT framework’s original constructs (performance expectancy [PE], effort expectancy [EE], facilitating conditions [FC], subjective norms [SN]) are extended by including new constructs adapted for foreign language learning (traditional culture [TC], motivation and attitudes towards language learning [MAL], and personal traits [PT]). Our results based on hypotheses testing using structural equation modelling indicate that students generally hold a positive view of SAELL. PE, EE, SN, FC, MAL, and PT are factors that enhance students’ readiness for and adoption of SAELL. By contrast, TC hinders the adoption of smartphone technology in both formal and informal English language learning environments. These findings have practical implications for developing strategies that boost students’ readiness for SAELL. Key stakeholders including policymakers, educators, teachers, and students must consider the relevant social, cultural, technological, and subject-specific factors when fostering students’ readiness for SAELL to harness its full potential.