Student Self-Efficacy and Preferences in Virtual Versus In-Person Teamwork: Insights for Post-Pandemic Work Readiness

A virtual team is an organizationally and/or geographically distributed group whose members use synchronous and asynchronous technologies to work collaboratively. A team charter is a document that describes how group members intend to behave and interact while working collaboratively. Team charters have been used to facilitate virtual teamwork. This study, which took place in a graduate-level business program at a private university in California, was designed to fill the gap in the literature about team charter usage by virtual teams consisting of business students. The students were required to create a team charter in the first semester of the program and were encouraged to create them in subsequent semesters. The following research questions guided this study: 1. What, if anything, do business students, grouped into virtual teams for the first time, report to be challenging about virtual teamwork? 2. How do business students, grouped into virtual teams for the first time, describe the process involved in creating their team charter, when required to? 3. How do business students who have collaborated in virtual teams for at least a semester assess the impact, if any, that team charters have on virtual teamwork? To address the research questions, 81 students in the business program were surveyed; twelve students, two professors, and two administrators were interviewed. Multiple regression analysis was used to analyze survey data; content analysis procedures were used to analyze interview data. Among other things, the findings suggest that team charters helped students identify shared goals and increase team-member accountability. Team charters also helped students manage conflict and operate more effectively. However, team charters typically require substantial time and effort to create, and many students did not opt to develop charters once they were only encouraged and not required to do so. The study was delimited to a single master's program, so the findings have limited generalizability, if generalizability is defined in a traditional way. However, the study provides ideas that can be used heuristically in other contexts, especially contexts in which professors and administrators are considering ways to improve virtual teamwork.

For many employees, the daily routine is no longer represented by the trip to the office and colleges for spending eight hours a day on-site. Virtual working processes that are flexible regarding location and hours, such as digital nomadism on remote islands (Leclercq-Vandelannoitte and Isaac 2016) (Nash, et al. 2018), teamwork distributed across coworking spaces in different cities (Gandini 2015), and working "remotely" from home prestructured by organizations (Coffey and Wolf 2018) are already implemented alternatives. These alternatives concern different types of workers, including long-term employees, freelance workers, so-called short-term gig workers (Nash, et al. 2018), and so-called prosumers. Prosumers are mostly unpaid for creative tasks, such as the design of new flavor combinations at Ferrero (Ferrero Konfigurations-Kampagne 2019 https://www.dein-kuesschen.de/ [accessed 2019/02/13]) as well as salaried producing tasks, for example on the energy market (Parag and Sovacool 2016). Based on these manifold alternatives, organizations are increasingly deploying virtual teams as a way of structuring work and tapping the full potential of a diverse and dispersed workforce (Gilson, et al. 2015). Related phenomena are now also addressed and gradually explained by scientific research, for example concerning management (Dunn, et al. 2015) (Shameem, Kumar and Chandra 2017) and collaboration (Salminen-Karlsson 2014) of virtual teams. Organizations often also introduce virtual teams, as virtual work is more and more requested by employees. People today seek working virtually due to their socialization, their ideas of how to shape their lives, and also because technology gives them the ability to work in a different city without moving (Rump and Eilers 2017). Numerous examples from practice show the successful integration of virtual teams. Zapier is a current example of a for-profit company that has been creating value through virtual teamwork since its founding in 2011, and promotes ideas on virtual teamwork in its own publications (Foster 2015), and publicly (Zapier https://zapier.com/jobs/ [accessed 2019/02/13]). Despite the increasing deployment of virtual teams as additional structure or as basic structure of work within organizations, examples from practice also show shortcomings regarding the organizational integration of virtual teams. As prominent examples, Yahoo and IBM have abolished at least some of their virtual teamwork structures in order to improve speed and quality of communication processes (Kinsey Goman 2017) (Simons 2017). These examples from practice as well as the described insights from scientific literature show a diverse and sometimes contradictive image of chances and challenges for a successful integration of virtual teams into an organization. Based on these findings, the underlying hypothesis for this doctoral thesis is that understanding individual and organizational mechanisms, requirements for virtual teamwork, and its successful integration into organizations lays the foundation for high-performing and resilient virtual teams. Research provides insights on the dynamics and correlations of phenomena associated with virtual teamwork, like leadership (i.a. (Dunn, et al. 2015), (Gladden 2014), (Politis 2014)) and cultural requirements (i.a. (Magnusson, Schuster and Taras 2014), (Riedl, et al. 2015), (Tenzer and Pudelko 2016)). A comprehensive view on integrating virtual teams into organizations and concomitant adaptations of organizational elements, allows for synthesizing these insights, taking their interrelations into account. The goal of this doctoral thesis is thus to present a model of organizational patterns for the successful integration of virtual teams by consolidating and updating scientific insights on adapting organizational elements and exploring as well as evaluating these ideas through case studies. The central research question focused on this goal is: What are manifestations of organizational patterns for virtual team integration that can serve as references guiding the implementation of virtual teams and associated organizational adaptations? In order to reveal these patterns, the elements of the integrated framework by Baumöl (2008) were instantiated for the transformation process analyzed here, the integration of virtual teamwork. In the presented eight conference and journal articles, the elements were examined in a focused manner. Depending on the subquestion addressed in each paper, literature-based deduction and (reference) modeling, interview-based inductive theory formation in accordance with grounded theory and inductive questionnaire-based case study analyzes were applied as methodical approaches. Hence, the application of research methods follows a pluralistic methodology (Zawedde, et al. 2010) (Mingers 2001). The research contributions are positioned in their sequence and context along the steps of the "design science research methodology" (Peffers, Tuunanen and Niehaves 2018). Examples of underlying concepts and theories are the conceptualization of the virtuality degree of teams as a continuum (Schweitzer and Duxbury 2010), the integrated framework (Baumöl 2008), a systematized organizational culture (Schein and Schein 2017) and the Media Synchronicity Theory for the analysis of work processes in context with deployed technology (Dennis and Valacich 1999). Derived insights were finally synthesized and integrated for the last research paper. The modeled organizational patterns provide an understanding of and links for future research endeavors as well as guidance for practical integration of virtual teams. The results of the research papers support the hypothesis that a comprehensive view on interrelated organizational elements is critical for successfully adapting the elements for the integration of virtual teams. Relevant organizational elements include, in addition to the work processes and their technological facilitation, in particular elements in context of organizational culture (Schein and Schein 2017). This is also reflects in the examples of successfully integrated virtual teams. The results contribute to understanding the requirements and dynamics of virtual teamwork and how to successfully integrate virtual teams into organizations, and also provide links for future research in this field.

There is an increased demand for a skilled workforce that is prepared for work in today’s digital economy, which is often done in virtual teams. Thus, while many students today have little or no experience working in this mode, they are often placed in virtual teams early in their careers. We argue that that if students have the opportunity to acquire virtual leadership skills in an authentic setting in their undergraduate program, they will be more prepared when they are placed in virtual teams and virtual leadership roles in the workplace. An instructional strategy was implemented in a large online undergraduate business course to provide students with the experience of working in virtual teams in an authentic setting and the findings of the study highlight the importance of organization, technology management, communication, managing student perceptions, and coaching when using this strategy to teach virtual leadership and virtual team skills.

The ability to communicate effectively as part of a virtual team working in the online environment is a valuable skill to have in the modern e-workplace. Such skills can be difficult to develop in undergraduate students. This paper reports on a professional practice unit situated in a web 2.0 environment that aims to develop students’ teamwork skills. The paper also reports on research that sought to gain understanding of the student experience of interacting online in virtual teams. The results showed that students value the virtual teamwork experience, finding it useful and relevant for their future careers. The student perceptions of various aspects of virtual teamwork have improved with each subsequent offering of the unit.

Virtual teams require communication technology for project activities that require teamwork and frequent communication. Effective and frequent communication is a project success factor of virtual project teams, with communication management the most effective risk management strategy for virtual projects. Previous studies examined factors that affect communication in virtual project teams, but did not clearly differentiate between risk drivers, risk events, and risk impacts. Further, previous research primarily focussed in the global software development sector which pioneered virtual work. COVID-19 increased prevalence of virtual work and preliminary research demonstrates that COVID-19 has changed how virtual teams work. In line with risk management best practice of reassessing project risks when the project environment changes, this study assesses the most prevalent risk drivers of inadequate communication in virtual project teams within the South African environment. Relevant risk drivers were identified through literature review and a survey was used to collect data from project managers. Statistical analysis was completed using frequency tables. Communication competency, organisational environment and insufficient internet connectivity were shown to have a minor impact on virtual teamwork. Unstable electrical supply was a significant risk driver of inadequate communication and a risk that must be mitigated during virtual project teamwork in countries with insufficient electrical infrastructure.

In recent years, virtual teams have become a feature of most corporate workplaces, yet few academic programs prepare students to work in virtual teams, and few textbooks support the development of key skills for virtual teamwork. The primary purpose of this book is to enable higher education students to participate in virtual teams with students from other institutions, who potentially operate in different countries, time zones, and/or cultures. The book guides students through the process of working in virtual team projects for their classes, and helps them to engage with the learning experiences, and to respond to potential challenges.The book is directed towards students within any of the following disciplines: Business; Information Technology; Communication Studies; and Engineering. One section of the book also guides teachers through the process of organizing virtual team projects, and explores the teacher/teacher collaboration that is an inevitable consequence of organizing inter-institutional student virtual team projects. It provides advice for teachers on how to manage administrative challenges such as conflicting institutional schedules and grading mechanisms. In addition, it discusses research themes and data gathering and analysis techniques for teachers who wish to publish findings about the virtual team process and outcomes.As well as students and teachers, the book is also useful for researchers exploring any of the following themes: Technology use in virtual teams; Communication strategies and international communication in virtual teams; Communities of learning, e-learning, and virtual teams; Challenges of virtual teamwork; Planning a virtual team collaboration project; and Gathering and analyzing data about virtual collaboration.

TeamXchange, an online team-based exercise, is described. TeamXchange is consistent with the collaborative model of learning and provides a means of fostering enhanced student learning and engagement through collaboration in virtual teams experiencing periodic membership changes. It was administered in an undergraduate Organizational Behavior course over two 4-week sessions using WebCT classroom support technology. Quantitative and qualitative results demonstrate some support for the exercise objectives. Specifically, learning of course material, learning about teamwork, and confidence for working in virtual teams were enhanced among those without prior experience working in virtual teams. Team cohesiveness and social loafing behavior were lower in fluid teams than in stable teams. Finally, introverted individuals perceived themselves as having more influence and their teams as more cohesive and communicative than did more extraverted individuals. These results suggest the potential value of TeamXchange, especially for those who have not previously been exposed to virtual teams or who are normally more reticent in face-to-face team or large-class settings. Exercise implications and lessons learned are discussed.

Virtual teamwork is considered as one of the key skills to an employer in the recruitment process because of the globalization of business and technological advancement. The company needs employees skilled in virtual teamwork to run their globalized business process. So, it becomes important for graduates to have good skills, knowledge, and ability of virtual teamwork through their higher education before starting their professional careers. Therefore, this paper is going to evaluate a virtual teamwork model which was proposed for developing an effective virtual teamwork in the context of online higher education so that graduate can achieve a sound knowledge and skills about virtual teamwork. The model is assessed by applying the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) statistical technique to validate the model’s statistical significance. The evaluation of the model shows that the model has a significant positive impact on the effectiveness of virtual teamwork in online higher education. Hence, it is believed that the application of the model would be useful to enhance the knowledge, skills, and ability of future graduates in online higher education, and can foster their early success in their professional career. Also, any company which practiced virtual teamwork in their business process can be benefited from this model for the better management of their virtual teams.

Purpose: The digital transformation and the increased use of technologies have changed the world of work severely. With it, collaboration and cooperation methods among employees. Therefore, new ways of working together must be applied to work in an international and digital working environment. For Vocational Education and Training (VET), developing new (transversal) competencies to engage in virtual teamwork is necessary to adequately prepare young professionals for the present and future labor market. However, there is little research on the current situation in VET regarding virtual teamwork. Approach: We deployed a cross-sectional design and collected data from N = 181 commercial apprentices in Germany regarding virtual teamwork. We analyze our data using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to examine the interrelationships between input, process, and outcome variables to foster satisfaction and innovative learning in virtual teams as desired targets of VET. To assess these results regarding virtuality, the complexity of tasks, gender of the apprentices, and the size of the training firms, we derived a multigroup analysis (MGA) of our model. Findings: The results indicate that organizational factors have the most significant influence concerning the relationship between input and process factors. Surprisingly, the technical affinity of individuals has only a minor effect. Regarding the relationship between process and outcome factors, motivation and responsibility have the highest impact on innovative learning, whilst communication culture severely affects the perceived satisfaction in virtual teamwork. Conclusion: The findings lead to valuable insights on factors influencing virtual teamwork in VET and can help to design learning programs to prepare young professionals to smoothly transition to and successfully master their future working environments by using new ways of collaboration and cooperation. This is particularly relevant for VET, as prior research has focused primarily on primary and secondary education. Lastly, we identify potential scales and items that help capture some of the inherent constructs of virtual teamwork.

This study aims to determine the relationship between student self efficacy and perceptions of parents' expectations with decision making in determining the college majors. The research sampling used cluster random sampling of 147 students from 5 classes. The research instrument used the scale of decision making to determine the majors (r = 0.868), student self efficacy scale (r = 0.858), and the scale of perceptions of parents' expectations (r = 0.888). The data analysis technique of this study used multiple linear regression. Based on multiple linear regression test, the value of Fcount = 39.116> Ftable = 3.06 (p = 0.000 <0.05) with a value of R = 0.593. The total contribution of student self efficacy and perceptions of parents' expectations for decision making determines the course major of 0.352. Based on the partial test, it showed that there are a relationship between student self-efficacy and decision making in determining the majors (p = 0.43 <0.05 rx1y = 0.140) and there are a relationship between perceptions of parents' expectations and decision making in determining the majors (p = 0,000 <0,05; rx2y = 0,549). This study concluded that there are a significant positive relationship between student self efficacy and perceptions of parents' expectations with decision making in determining the college majors in high school students.

PurposeLens of conservation of resources (COR) theory has been used to study how organizations can create resource passageways for their employees via managers. This has been examined in cross-cultural virtual work teams distributed across time and space within the high-resource loss context of the COVID-19 pandemic.Design/methodology/approachLongitudinal field design was used in a transnational organization involving data collection at three times over eight months. At Time 1, qualitative methodology was used to propose a conceptual model. At Time 2 and Time 3, an online survey was used to collect data for 205 virtual work teams across 10 countries in the Asia–Pacific region pre and post “manager as coach” training respectively.FindingsUsing COR theory, the study highlights that “manager as coach” training is an effective resource for managers in the high resource depletion context of the pandemic. Access to timely support increases saliency for the resource-gain spiral and has a cross-over impact on virtual work team outcomes suggesting transferability of resources from managers to subordinates. Also, managers across all nationalities view coaching training as an equally valuable resource.Practical implicationsThe study provides evidence for investment in timely and relevant support for managers to positively and swiftly impact virtual work teams during high-resource loss contexts.Originality/valueThe study expands COR crossover theory across space and time dimensions using a longitudinal field research design.

Knowledge collaboration (KC) is an essential concept for improving knowledge management, emphasizing not only the efficiency of knowledge but also the effectiveness. In many companies, KC is facing new challenges, especially in virtual teams' performance. The Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA) matrix is a useful tool to help managers overcome this issue. This study aims to determine the importance-performance of the factors affecting KC in virtual teams among Iranian scientific activists in the agricultural field to give the managers a strategic perspective and improve the KC performance in virtual work teams. Electronic questionnaires were distributed and collected. Using the mean-test, through the IPA matrix, the data was analyzed. Findings were demonstrated for each affecting factor. Then based on the analysis, management suggestions are proposed to improve KC performance. The IPA grids illustrated that the value factor fell into the "concentrate here" quadrant, which is the most strategic part for managers to focus on. This study enhances the theory of KC and provides a practical reference for managing KC in virtual teams. Using the extracted reports from the IPA, managers can have a proper perspective to take action in their future knowledge management strategies.

PurposeVirtual project teams are teams whose members use technology to varying degrees in working across locational, temporal, and relational boundaries to accomplish an interdependent task. Work in virtual project teams is a challenge for many organizations. Having studied the issue for several years, the authors propose in this paper to delve deeper into the question from the point of view of organizational support. More specifically, this paper seeks to focus on the organizational support systems and mechanisms provided by firms to their virtual project teams and their impacts on the components of these teams. The objective is to identify the structural factors and processes related to virtual teams that are affected by organizational support systems and mechanisms.Design/methodology/approachThe paper reports exploratory empirical case studies of two Canadian‐based international high‐tech companies. In‐depth interviews were conducted with managers with experience in virtual project team management.FindingsThe same organizational support systems and mechanisms were found to exist in both companies. Functional processes were found to be the virtual team components that were most affected by the implementation of support systems and mechanisms. They are followed by communicational processes, which were substantially supported by various support systems and mechanisms in Company A but less supported in Company B. To a lesser extent, the relational processes of both firms were also affected, while structural factors affecting virtual project teams were almost entirely unsupported.Practical implicationsVirtual project teams require various kinds of commitments by corporate management. For example, we find that top management supports virtual project teams by means of human resources (HR), resource allocation, coordination, and communication support systems. These support systems facilitate project coordination and monitoring, information exchange and access, trust building and cohesion between team members. These findings enable practitioners to better understand the effects of organizational support on the components of virtual teams, so that greater attention is paid to the configuration of these components and support systems can be better designed to improve virtual project team performance.Originality/valueOrganizational support is considered to have a strong impact on project success. Few publications have examined organizational support for virtual project teams, and even fewer have focused on its effects on such teams. This paper should contribute to fostering a better understanding of the effects of organizational support on the components of virtual project teams.

Challenges over multi-site software development are on working in virtual teams and sharing knowledge. It is quite normal that software engineers working in a virtual team have never met face to face in multi-site environments. In addition they have different educational backgrounds and interpret methods in different ways. Software engineering education, training, and practice are different between universities, cities, and countries. As a result, it is difficult to share a piece of knowledge between distributed teams and among remote team members. There are a number of standards that different teams could be referring to. Remote software engineers use a particular standard as their own individual guide and when they share their own knowledge base and terminology is different from those of others. Most issues raised are related to inconsistency in understanding software engineering theories and practice. Therefore sharing knowledge is the challenge and to resolve the differences between the distributed teams we need to understand its key variables of knowledge sharing. In this paper we propose an ontology-based approach for knowledge sharing measurement. Particularly in the approach, we look into measurement of transferability and complexity of knowledge. The impact of nature of knowledge on knowledge sharing is focused. A prototype is developed taking Software Engineering Ontology as example.KeywordsOntologyKnowledge Sharing MeasurementTransferability of KnowledgeComplexity of KnowledgeMulti-site Software DevelopmentSoftware Engineering

In 2005 an undergraduate course in project management was converted from face-to-face mode to wholly online mode. The online course was designed with an underlying problem-based learning (PBL) pedagogy and used a simulated, fictitious telecommunications company, United Enterprises (UE), as a case study learning resource. The students worked in virtual teams to complete online learning activities and to solve authentic project management tasks for UE. This paper reports the findings of three surveys that were completed by students during the semester, to gauge their opinions about their experiences of working in virtual teams within the learning environment. Most students indicated that they valued the opportunity to discuss various aspects of the course with peers and faculty online, and to interact with real-life employees of UE. Overall the findings show that students were satisfied with this style of learning and enjoyed the experience of working collaboratively within a virtual team.