Structural shifts in the global arms trade by weapon type: shifting core transfer states and network multipolarity

The purpose of this article is to assess the tactical and technical characteristics of domestic anti-aircraft weapons (guns and machine guns) of the Red Army, which formed the basis of an active element of the (ground) Soviet air defense during the Great Patriotic War (1941– 1945). In the late 1930s and early 1940s, the Air Defense Forces underwent qualitative changes in the technical field, directly related to the further development of weapons, military and special equipment. They were reflected, first of all, in the structure of medium-caliber (MAA) and small-caliber (LAA) anti-aircraft artillery, as well as in anti-aircraft machine gun units and subunits. The adoption of new models of semi-automatic and automatic guns contributed to an increase in the zone of destruction of enemy aircraft in the process of organizing the cover of groups of troops (naval forces in coastal areas) and military facilities in the theaters of military operations, as well as important administrative centers and industrial areas in the deep rear of the country from enemy air attacks. The article reveals the evolution of the main models of Soviet anti-aircraft artillery guns that were in service with military and territorial air defense on the eve of and during the Great Patriotic War. A separate section of the article is also devoted to anti-aircraft machine guns, which were actively used at the front in the fight against low-flying enemy air attack weapons. Based on the study of special and military-historical literature, including technical descriptions and manuals for the operation of certain types of weapons, the author comes to the conclusion that there is a dialectical relationship between the means of air attack and defense in the air sphere, which is one of the most important problems of modern military affairs. The results obtained in the course of the study made it possible to draw conclusions (in the form of logical judgments) about the trends in the further development of anti-aircraft defense systems in the direction of fire automation and an increase in the caliber of guns and their mobility.

The acquisition and use of military power are perhaps the most studied subjects in the field of international relations, mainly because they have been common occurrences throughout history. It is surprising, then, that the concepts of militar­ ism and militarization are not sufficiently well defined to command a consensus among scholars as to their meaning, let alone their causes and consequences. And as other chapters in this volume clearly document, militarism and militari­ zation are concepts that are relevant to social relations in realms other than formal inter­ state relations, which has made conceptual clarity that much more difficult to achieve. But my focus in this chapter is indeed inter­ state relations, with special attention to the impact of the global arms trade on the militarization of developing states and on those states’ use of military force – behaviour that may, in some cases, derive from state policies fairly described as outgrowths of militarism. The notion that states acquire military capabilities, which are then employed in hostilities against other states, or against non­ state actors who are perceived to threaten governments from within state borders, is a straightforward and rela­ tively uncontroversial rendition of the connection between militarization and militarism. But examining the role of the global arms trade as a contributing factor in both invites further consideration of relevant social forces operating at the international level. The Cold War, in particular, provided a social context within which major powers formulated their arms supply policies and other states, many of them newly independent, availed themselves of opportunities to build and maintain military capability. Arms­ transfer relationships, then, can be viewed as a mechanism by which states acquire, in addition to military capabil­ ity, prevailing conceptions of statehood and national security. This chapter has three main parts. In the next section, I differentiate the con­ cepts of militarization and militarism. There is no scholarly consensus on the definitional issues addressed in this section, but it is necessary for my purposes to try to draw a careful distinction before moving on to consider how the con­ cepts ought to be interpreted in relation to the global arms trade. Next is a dis­ cussion of the value that developing states attach to capital­ intensive military postures and the role of arms­ transfer relationships in shaping state preferences in this regard. In the last section, I turn to the arms trade as a factor in thediffusion of militarism and draw attention to some pertinent findings reported in the empirical literature on effects of arms transfers on military hostility between and within states. I conclude with some speculative comments on the post­ Cold War restructuring of the global arms trade and the implications for militarization and militarism in the contemporary era.

IntroductionThe global beef trade, as a critical component of the meat trade, plays an important role in balancing beef supply and demand worldwide. However, research on the evolution of its network patterns remains relatively limited. This article aims to explore the evolution of global beef trade network patterns and provide insights into its implications for sustainable development.MethodsUsing complex network theory, this paper constructs weighted and unweighted global beef trade networks based on international trade data and conducts an in-depth analysis of the evolution of global beef trade patterns from 2013 to 2022 across the overall, individual, and clustering levels.ResultsThe analysis reveals an increasing trend in connectivity, efficiency, and tightness within the global beef trade network. In the unweighted network, the core beef-importing countries are primarily concentrated in Germany, the United Arab Emirates, and the Netherlands. However, in the weighted network, the core importing countries shift to the United States, Japan, and China. Meanwhile, the core beef-exporting countries consistently remain Australia, Brazil, and New Zealand in both network types. Additionally, the analysis identifies clustering and regionalization characteristics within the global beef trade blocks.DiscussionThese findings highlight the evolving dynamics of global beef trade, emphasizing the roles of key countries and the structural shifts in the trade network. The study provides targeted recommendations for promoting sustainable development in the beef trade sector.

The purpose of the article is to identify the methodology, used in international humanitarian law for the regulation of new types of weapons. Under the settlement of the objectives of the article, regulation is understood as the establishment of permits, prohibitions and restrictions on the use of this type of weapon in accordance with the basic principles of international humanitarian law. The article is methodologically based on the works of foreign and Ukrainian researchers, devoted to the problems of the settlement of new weapons systems in international humanitarian law. The empirical basis of the article was formed by international treaties in the field of international humanitarian law and codified customs of this industry, as reflected in the codifications, developed by the International Committee of the Red Cross. The article establishes that in international humanitarian law there is an obligation for states to assess the compliance of new weapons systems with international humanitarian law. At the same time, this norm has two disadvantages. First, it is too abstract, which allows states to avoid the obligation to assess each time with reference to the fact that a certain type of weapon does not fall under the definition of a new type of weapon. Secondly, international humanitarian law does not contain specific mechanisms to hold violating states accountable. It is concluded, that it is necessary to revise the current international legal regulation of the obligation to assess new weapons systems in the direction of its concretization and strengthening of responsibility for non-compliance. Corresponding changes can be made to the Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 1977, or introduced by adopting a separate protocol.

This article explores the dynamic and complex regulatory landscape of cargo transportation in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). As a critical hub in global trade, the UAE’s approach to cargo transportation not only impacts its economic landscape but also has broader implications for international logistics and trade. When the authors speak about air cargo, a very prominent characteristic comes to mind, that is, the ‘speed’ at which goods are transported from one point to another in a world which is fueled by time-based competition which connects leading suppliers, smaller businesses to consumers within a complicated global supply chain operating within networks. The authors aim to examine the current regulatory framework governing cargo operations, highlighting key events contributing to the growth of cargo transportation in recent years within the UAE, shedding light on the central regulatory bodies and key players in the UAE which contribute to the chain of transporting cargo and shipments in the UAE. This study will also briefly compare the standards applied in the UAE with international norms. It delves into the implications of existing regulations on various facets of trade and logistics, including compliance challenges faced by businesses. The article identifies specific challenges in the regulatory setting, such as safety, environmental considerations and the integration of emerging technologies. Furthermore, it distinguishes between the flexible and rigid aspects of these regulations, analyzing their impact on the industry. Looking ahead, the article forecasts emerging trends and potential shifts in regulatory policies, emphasizing the need for adaptability and forward-thinking in policymaking. The aim is to provide a comprehensive overview of the UAE’s regulation of the cargo transportation landscape. The present study offers insights into its current status, challenges, and future directions, thereby contributing to policy development in this vital sector. New research examining the UAE’s cargo regulations reveals significant gaps that could stall its ambitions of becoming a leading cargo transportation global hub. The study identifies shortcomings in regulations related to cargo transportation in the UAE and its efficiency. These areas, along with potential inflexibility in the current system, pose challenges to the UAE to compete effectively in the time-sensitive world of cargo shipments.

Book Review| June 01 2021 Review: Architecture in Global Socialism: Eastern Europe, West Africa, and the Middle East in the Cold War Łukasz Stanek Architecture in Global Socialism: Eastern Europe, West Africa, and the Middle East in the Cold War Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2020, 368 pp., 150 color and 127 b/w illus. $60 (cloth), ISBN 9780691168708 Ayala Levin Ayala Levin University of California, Los Angeles Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians (2021) 80 (2): 234–235. https://doi.org/10.1525/jsah.2021.80.2.234 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Twitter LinkedIn Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Ayala Levin; Review: Architecture in Global Socialism: Eastern Europe, West Africa, and the Middle East in the Cold War. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 1 June 2021; 80 (2): 234–235. doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/jsah.2021.80.2.234 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search nav search search input Search input auto suggest search filter All ContentJournal of the Society of Architectural Historians Search Łukasz Stanek's Architecture in Global Socialism is an indispensable contribution to our understanding of the multifaceted process of globalization. Too often, globalization is associated with Americanization, a viewpoint that eliminates from globalization's history the multitude of actors that take part in its process, the various geopolitical positionings that shape international alliances, and the social, economic, and political agendas that these alliances stake. This process can be traced to the era of development following World War II, with the opening of decolonizing states in Asia and Africa to new actors and markets that challenged lingering colonial ties. By focusing on the work of architects from the socialist bloc in these emerging markets of the global South, Stanek's book breaks with the predominant monolithic view on the hegemony of Western capitalism and its unidirectional vectors of influence. Building on growing scholarship regarding the production of knowledge in Eastern European countries and its... You do not currently have access to this content.

INTRODUCTION. This research paper presents the authors view on the essence of the problems of modern international law regulation of lethal autonomous weapons systems (LAWS) and international arms circulation. The authors dwell upon various aspects of new technologies in the field of creating LAWS, outline the prospects for the solution of the current challenges, as well as give a legal assessment of the legality of new types of weapons, methods and means of warfare from the perspective of contemporary international law. The system and mechanisms of international law regulation of the military purpose products circulation are also analyzed in this scientific work.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The subject of this study comprises international treaties, international customs, general principles of international law and national legislation of states. The study also includes the analysis of international acts of different nature, reports and other documents of international organizations, national authorities, scientific and educationalliterature. The methodological basis of this study is a wide range of research methods, namely: formal-legal, formal-logical, comparative-legal and historical-legal. In addition, the researchers apply system, structural and functional methods, as well as methods of analysis and generalization.RESEARCH RESULTS. The result of the study is the conclusion about the perspectives of developing auniversal definition of LAWS, as well as a common approach to understanding their characteristics and parameters of human control, and also about the advantages of LAWS in the course of military operations and solving national security problems of states, primarily in terms of compliance with IHL rules, which all military personnel are required to strictly observe. It is also necessary to take into account the crucial role of the issues of secrecy and national security, while Article 36 of Additional Protocol I does not contain criteria for distinguishing new types of weapons from other types of weapons, for example, from those that have undergone multi-stage modernization. It can be stated that at present there are only separate and insuffi ently effective mechanisms of international law regulation due to their voluntary basis. Therefore, national export control mechanisms are of paramount importance for the process of regulating the circulation of military purpose products, which is an essential element of national sovereignty.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. The authors come to the following conclusions: the existing provisions of IHL are fully applicable to LAWS; responsibility for the use of LAWS should be borne by the person who manages the robotic complex or «programs» and gives the order to use LAWS, but the specific forms and methods of human control should remain at the discretion of states; Article 36 of Additional Protocol I provides extremely limited opportunities to prevent the creation of new weapons systems, does not require any reporting and control format; research and development of new types ofweapons are secret, and the acquisition or adoption of obviously or presumably indiscriminate weapons systems are not a violation, but rather a preparation for a violation or an activity of a controversial nature; further improvement of the international law regulation of arms circulation should be developed by creating mandatory universal mechanisms of international law regulation that would prevent the uncontrolled circulation and illegal distribution of weapons, including their sale to terrorists.

After rapid growth in the 1970s, the volume of arms transfers reached its highest level since the Second World War in the early 1980s. This was the period of major East–West tensions, culminating in the early-Reagan years where the USA under President Ronald Reagan decided to out-compete the communist bloc, resulting in thriving US trade with European North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) allies as well as other allies (e.g. Japan and Australia), trade between European NATO allies, supplies from the Soviet Union to Warsaw Pact allies and imports by neutral European countries. East and West clashed militarily by proxy in different regions (e.g. Angola, Ethiopia-Somalia and Afghanistan), resulting in other extensive flows of arms. Also, other conflicts and tensions, particularly the Iran–Iraq War, which had a wider impact on Middle Eastern levels of armament, as well as the continuing Arab–Israeli and India–Pakistan conflicts, pushed up the demand for arms (SIPRI database; SIPRI Yearbook). In the late-1980s, that is before the Cold War had officially ended, the level started to decrease, but the most pronounced dip can be seen in the period from 1989 to 1995. A few subsequent years of growth were largely related to the People’s Republic of China emerging as an arms market and the military modernization of other states in Asia, as well as ongoing modernization in the Middle East, where Iraq and Iran were perceived as threats by rich oil-exporting Gulf countries. The 1997 financial crisis that mainly hit Asia and the slump in oil prices saw another downward trend. New economic growth, higher oil prices and realignment of the defence policies of European countries were the main reasons for increased arms trade after 2000.

Since the end of the Cold War, Latin America has enjoyed a prolonged period of limited regional tension. With the exception of the 1995 Alto-Cenepa War between Ecuador and Peru there have been no interstate conflicts and the region has seen the development of several initiatives aimed at economic and security co-operation and integration. Most of the interstate disputes over border demarcation that have led to conflict in previous years were resolved (Arévalo de León 2002, 14). Following prolonged periods of extensive militarization during the many military dictatorships of the 1970s and 1980s, defence spending remained low and activity in the global arms market was limited as new civilian governments sought to assert control over defence policies.

Under the complex operational environment of the antimissile operation, the application of Systems Modeling Language (SysML) parametric model in weapon system effectiveness evaluation is explored. The function of parametric graph model, the construction process of the model and the optimization method of the model are researched. Using feedback mechanism to collect, collate and calculate the parameters of the model, and realize the leap from the index relationship description to the calculation of the index. Finally, the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed method is verified by using the system of antimissile weapon system as an example.

One of the important directions in the study of military affairs of the Pyanobor culture is the study of weapon sets. A set of weapons means armaments in a specific closed complex. Their study allows us to understand the degree of the population’s armament, its diversity, the demand for certain types of weapons. The problem of the research lies in the fact that such conclusions were made on the basis of an analysis of complexes with weapons from only one burial ground. It was for this reason that the decision was made to analyze the larger-scale necropolis of the Pyanobor culture, in which the number of those buried with items of weapons significantly exceeds those previously studied. This was the Kushulevsky III burial ground. The purpose of this article is to identify and analyze sets of weapons for male burials at the Kushulevsky III burial ground. It is also necessary to compare the data obtained on the weapon sets of the Kushulevsky III burial ground with the necropolises already studied in a similar way: the Okhlebininsky Kara-Abyz culture and the Yuldashevsky Pyanobor culture. It will be fundamentally important to identify the types of arrowheads from the burials of the Kushulevsky III burial ground.An explanatory model for reducing the number of horse bridle sets in military burials of the Pyanobor culture is also presented. In the specialized literature, these theoretical conclusions are described for the first time, which determines the novelty of this work. This work was made possible by the use of statistical calculations, the comparative historical method, as well as the methods of chronology and typology. The use of these techniques made it possible to establish the number of weapons items, their types, types of weapon sets, chronology, etc. The result of the work performed was a demonstration of the proximity of the weapon sets of the Pyanobor and Kara-Abyz cultures. In some cases, certain categories of weapons predominate, for example, bone arrowheads. In bladed weapons, the single-edged combat knife is the most used. In the same category of weapons, there is an electiveness and singularity of swords hitting the drunken population. The combination of a combat knife with a bow or spear forms a standardized complex of weapons of the Pyanobor culture.

Efforts to curb the proliferation of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction have been made, in parallel with disarmament efforts, since 1945. It has been said that the best way of preventing the spread of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction would be through their complete elimination from the arsenals of States. However, faced with difficulties in its efforts to reach the ultimate goal of all disarmament efforts, namely general and complete disarmament, the international community has undertaken a number of measures to prevent the spread of various categories of weapons and weapons systems, together with measures to achieve their reduction and elimination. These efforts have led to the establishment of a number of control regimes with regard to different categories of weapons.

Efforts to curb the proliferation of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction have been made, in parallel with disarmament efforts, since 1945. It has been said that the best way of preventing the spread of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction would be through their complete destruction and their elimination from the arsenals of States. However, faced with difficulties in its efforts to reach the ultimate goal of all disarmament efforts, namely general and complete disarmament, the international community has undertaken a number of measures to prevent the spread of various categories of weapons and weapons systems, together with measures to achieve their reduction and elimination. These efforts have led to the establishment of a number of control regimes with regard to different categories of weapons.

Efforts to curb the proliferation of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction have been made, in parallel with disarmament efforts, since 1945. The international community has undertaken a number of measures to prevent the spread of various categories of weapons and weapons systems, together with measures to achieve their reduction and elimination. These efforts have led to the establishment of a number of control regimes with regard to different categories of weapons.

Статья посвящена статистическому исследованию феноменов замедления мировой торговли относительно промышленного производства после мирового финансового кризиса 2008–2009 гг. и ее оживления в 2017 г. Цель работы заключается в декомпозиции эффектов по географическому и товарному признаку, т.е. в определении вкладов регионов мира, основных стран и агрегированных товарных групп в процессы замедления и оживления мировой торговли. Схема анализа предполагает рассмотрение указанных процессов и со стороны спроса на импортные товары, и со стороны предложения экспортных товаров на базе таможенной статистики. Фокус на торговле товарами обусловлен тем, что темпы роста мирового импорта и экспорта в сопоставимых ценах по услугам после кризиса 2008–2009 гг. снизились гораздо слабее, чем по товарам. Оценка динамики мировой торговли проводится по отношению к динамике мирового промышленного производства, а не ВВП, что связано с высокой волатильностью эластичности торговли по ВВП. Источниками данных выступают: Центральное бюро экономического планиро­вания Нидерландов, ВТО, Всемирный банк, ОЭСР, Продовольственная и сельскохозяйственная организация ООН, компания BP, база данных «Chatham Hou­se Resource Trade Database». Ключевой особенностью предлагаемой схемы анализа является согласование данных о темпах роста международной торговли по важнейшим странам и миру в целом из разных источников.Результаты исследования показывают, что замедление мирового экспорта во многом произошло за счет развивающихся стран Азии (прежде всего, Китая), Японии, Германии и США, тогда как замедление мирового импорта – в результате падения спроса со стороны Китая и остальных развивающихся стран Азии, Еврозоны, России и Бразилии. Драйверами оживления ми­рового экспорта выступили, главным образом, Китай, Япония, Нидерланды, Южная Корея и Мексика, мирового импорта – Китай, Индия и Россия. При этом, в отличие от замедления мировой торговли, ее оживление не носило фронтального характера, так как почти не затронуло Еврозону и было сконцентрировано преимущественно в развивающихся странах. Важную роль в замедлении мировой торговли сыграла переориентация Китая на внутренний рынок после кризиса 2008–2009 гг. В контексте товарной структуры мировой торговли замедление практически полностью обусловлено несырье­выми товарами.Результаты могут быть использованы для уточнения представлений относительно перспективного развития мировой торговли товарами за счет более аккуратного учета влияния основных стран.