Structural Response of a Steel-Frame Building to Traveling Fire

A link between mechanical heterogeneity and nontrivial local structural power-law response in a model metallic glass

Fire hazards analyses and probabilistic fire safety analyses have demonstrated that fire can be an important contributor to core damage frequency and other major plant damage states of nuclear power plants.1 In this issue, fire modelling has been undertaken by a diverse set of contributors, including, nuclear licensees, technical safety organizations, and, in some countries, regulators, to assess the consequences of fires. One important aspect of fire related risk-informed and performance-based regulation is undeniably the availability of verified and validated fire models that can reliably estimate the consequences of a fire in confined and mechanically ventilated compartments. A number of members of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) expressed their interest in participating in a joint international research project on the topic of fire events to be carried out under the auspices of the NEA. The PRISME (French acronym for "Fire Propagation in Elementary Multi-Room Scenarios") Project was launched from 2006 to 2010 by the Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire (IRSN, France) with their specially designed facilities in Cadarache. The three major research areas addressed by the PRISME Project included the confinement effect on the fire dynamics, the smoke propagation from the fire compartment to adjacent rooms, and the effect of the ventilation network on limiting smoke propagation. In total, five experimental campaigns consisting of more than 35 large-scale fire tests were carried out. The main experimental results and findings were presented in the first OECD/NEA PRISME summary report.2 In parallel to these experimental campaigns, PRISME partners evaluated the capabilities of various fire modelling codes to simulate fire scenarios based on the PRISME results. A number of benchmark exercises were conducted within an analytical working group of PRISME, which further advanced the knowledge on the predictive capabilities of the various fire codes being used.3-10 Some of these studies were published in the Fire Safety Journal, PRISME special issue.11 The experimental findings of the PRISME project and the analytical working group highlighted that confined mechanically ventilated fires were composed of physical complex phenomena to model. The outputs of the PRISME experiments and analysis allowed for the identification of further focused experimentations to address areas of uncertainty. These targeted areas formed the basis of the second PRISME Project. The second phase was launched on July 2011 and ended on December 2016. A total of nine countries signed the agreement to become PRISME 2 members: Belgium (Bel V and Tractebel-ENGIE), Canada (Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission—CNSC), Finland (Technical Research Centre—VTT), France (IRSN as Operating Agent and Électricité de France—EDF), Germany (Gesellschaft für Anlagen-und Reaktorsicherheit—GRS), Japan (Nuclear Regulation Authority—NRA and Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry—CRIEPI), Spain (Consejo de seguridad nuclear—CSN), Sweden (Strålsäkerhetsmyndigheten—SSM), and the United Kingdom (Office of Nuclear Regulation—ONR). The project focused on advancing the state-of-the-art knowledge in smoke and hot gas propagation through a horizontal opening between two superposed compartments, fire spread on real fire sources such as cable trays or electrical cabinets, and fire extinguishing studies using fixed water-based suppression systems. In total, four experimental campaigns were undertaken comprising more than twenty large-scale fire tests within the IRSN DIVA facility in Cadarache. The last experimental campaign was defined based on the results and analysis of the previous three to ensure a cost-effective experimental campaign. In addition to the large scale fire tests, extra support tests for the characterization of fire sources, in open atmosphere, were performed to provide additional data for validation purposes. As in the previous PRISME project, the analytical working group evaluated the capabilities of various fire modelling codes to simulate fire scenarios based on the PRISME 2 results.12-15 The output of the PRISME 2 project has been summarized in the OECD/NEA application report.15 The objective of the first PRISME 2 experimental campaign, named VSP for vertical smoke propagation, was to investigate the vertical smoke propagation through a horizontal opening for fire scenarios in mechanically and ventilated compartments. A detailed description of the flow at the vent was one key issue of this campaign in order to provide detailed data to validate fire simulation zone models and more complex three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) codes. The experimental setup was composed of two rooms (fire compartment and upper room) mechanically ventilated, with the fire source being a liquid pool fire. Two parameters were investigated: the buoyancy forces due to the temperature difference at the vent and the inertia forces due to the difference of pressure between the compartments. The effects of these parameters were investigated through the four VSP experimental tests. The results of these experiments are reported in this special issue in the paper Prétrel and Vaux, Experimental and numerical investigation of the smoke propagation in case of fire event within two confined and ventilated compartments connected with a horizontal opening. The objective of the second campaign, called FES for Fire Extinction System, was to assess the efficiency of two fixed water-based fire suppression systems. This topic is of great interest because such systems with water as extinguishing medium are often used to suppress fires in switchgear and cable rooms of nuclear power plants. Following initial sensitivity study, two key parameters were selected for investigation, droplet size distribution and water flow rate, to determine how they affect the efficiency of the water-based fire suppression systems. The fire tests investigated these effects by testing two types of industrial sprinkler and deluge nozzles with two water flow rates and two different activation times. A set of four fire tests was defined using a liquid pool as fire source. More details are given in the work of Vaux and Prétrel, Experimental and numerical study of the efficacy of water spray application in case of a fire event in a confined and mechanically ventilated compartment. On the basis of this experimental campaign, a theoretical investigation was undertaken, evaluating the concept of repeatability on large-scale fire tests. The results are reported in the paper by Prétrel and Querre, Repeatability assessment of large-scale fire experiment involving water spray system in a forced ventilated compartment. This original work provides important information for the validation of numerical simulations on this type of fire scenario. The third campaign, called CFS for Cable Fire Spreading, focused on studying fire spread for the two following configurations: fire spread over cables trays and fire spread from one electrical cabinet to other electrical targets, in mechanically ventilated fire scenarios. This campaign consisted of eight fire tests in the DIVA facility. The fire tests CFS 1 to 4 were composed of five horizontal cable trays and involved three electrical cable types, provided by the partners (GDF-SUEZ, VTT, and NRA). In addition, two ventilation renewal rates (high and low) were investigated. Some of these fire tests have been analyzed in the work of Zavaleta et al., Cable tray fire tests with halogenated electric cables in a confined and mechanically ventilated facility. Some other analyses can be found in Zavaleta and Audoui.16 The three, CFS-5 to CFS-7, fire tests involved fire sources represented by a real open-door electrical cabinet and three overhead cable trays. Specific objectives of these experimental tests were to investigate how effects of ventilation, fire dampers shutdown, and cable-type–influenced fire growth and spread in a confined and mechanically ventilated environment. The results of these fire tests are presented in the work of Zavaleta et al., Fire spread from an open-doors electrical cabinet to neighboring targets in a confined and mechanically ventilated facility. The final PRISME 2 campaign conducted tests in both open atmosphere and in the confined and mechanically ventilated DIVA facility. The open atmosphere tests were aimed at studying the impact of cable tray configuration on fire spread over multiple cable trays, including protected cable trays and slanted cable trays.17 The fire tests in a confined environment were designed to complement the previous FES and CFS campaigns. The work of Shirai et al., Experimental study of smoke effects on energized electrical cabinets located nearby a lubricant oil pool fire, reports on one of these tests. In addition to the characterization of these experimental fire tests and their physical analysis, the PRISME 2 project members wanted to share with the nuclear fire community the valuable and novel numerical work conducted during the scope of the PRISME 2 project. This learning is presented within this special issue. The modeling tools used in the various papers cover both fire zone models such as SYLVIA, lumped parameter models like COCOSYS, and highly complex three-dimensional models such as ISIS or FDS. The results provided by these different numerical studies undoubtedly make it possible to get further confidence in extending the validation domain of the different fire models. However, although improvements in fire modelling have been demonstrated, the application of these models for complex fire scenarios has illustrated the limitations of current modelling capabilities. This learning must be taken into account in future experimental programmes. In this direction, a number of recommendations have been provided by the PRISME 2 members for targeting further phenomena not exhaustively studied in PRISME 2. These phenomena are smoke stratification and spread, fire propagation between electrical cabinets, and electrical cable tray fires in confined and ventilated conditions. The ongoing follow-on PRISME 3 Project aims at addressing the above mentioned three phenomena and to provide answers to various issues of interest for nuclear fire safety analysis. The authors are grateful for the financial support of the participating OECD/NEA member countries to the joint OECD PRISME 2 Project. Moreover, they want to acknowledge the outstanding support provided by the members of the program review group for the many fruitful discussion during the PRISME 2 meetings as well as by the OECD/NEA secretariat making by their active and valuable contributions this activity a successful one: F. Bonte and C. Fourneau from Bel V (Belgium), E. Gorza and L.P. Kwahou Kesembo from Tractebel-ENGIE, (Belgium), A. Bounagui from CNSC (Canada), A. Matala and T. Sikanen from VTT (Finland), S. Hostikka from Aalto University (Finland), C. Lallemand from DGA (France), L. Gay, B. Sapa, B. Gautier, from EdF (France), T. Morii and S. Fujita from NRA (Japan), K. Shirai from CRIEPI (Japan), J. Peco Espinosa from CSN (Spain), C. Karlsson from SSM (Sweden), S. Ledin and L. Nyogeri from ONR (United Kingdom), A. Kelsey from Health & Safety Laboratory (United Kingdom), and Andrew White (NEA Secretariat).

Deep water drilling riser mechanical behavior analysis considering actual riser string configuration

Seismic response of tunnel lining structure in a thick expansive soil stratum

Investigation of door width towards flame tilting behaviours and combustion species in compartment fire scenarios using large eddy simulation

Based on the rigid-perfectly plastic assumption, the structural response of a free warhead under the application of concentrated force, evenly distributed force, and ramping-up force was analysed, taking the geometrical features into account. By the sectional shear force and bending moment distribution, the critical section was determined through a yield criterion based on the fully plastic bending moment. It shows that when the load is applied at the tip of the warhead, singularity occurs in the yield function at the tip, but vanishes when the applying (or starting) point of the load some distance away. The influence of the distance of the applying (or starting) point to the tip was also discussed, and was found to be important in determining the location of the critical section. As the applying (or starting) point moves away from the tip, the critical section appears near the tip first, then jumps to the cylinder part of the warhead, and when far enough, jumps back to the head of the warhead in the concentrated force case, while in the distributed force cases the critical section appears first at the cylinder part, and then jumps to the head. The critical section jumps to the head much earlier and more localized around the connecting point of the head and the cylinder in the ramping-up case than in the evenly distributed case.

The orthotropic steel plate systems have been used widely in decks of long span bridges because of their large capacity and economic advantages. Early experimental and analytical research on orthotropic steel plate systems has mainly focused on their behaviors during ambient conditions. This paper presents a detailed investigation on the axial capacity of the orthotropic steel plates under fire using a sequential thermal stress analysis framework. Temperature-dependent stress-strain relationship and thermal properties of steel have been taken into consideration in the finite element modeling. Different models and parameters such as fire model, material model, geometric imperfection, residual stress and rib wall thickness have been discussed, and their effects on the axial strength of the plate have been studied and compared. Simulation results indicate that fire has significant deteriorating effects on the plate’s axial capacity. Conventional simple fire models which assume uniform surface fire loads don’t represent the real fire scenarios, and tend to overestimate the axial capacity of the plate compared that during realistic fire scenarios. Initial imperfection and residual stress in the orthotropic steel plate has negligible effect on the axial capacity of the orthotropic steel plate system under fire conditions. Increasing the thickness of rib wall could improve the fire resistance of the plate.

Application of NUREG/CR-6850 to the fire risk quantification of a High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor

Evolution of fire models for estimating structural fire-resistance

Seismic vulnerability and retrofitting by damped braces of fire-damaged r.c. framed buildings

Water mist-based fire-extinguishing systems are gaining acceptance for the protection of ship machinery spaces. The use of simulation tools presents a great potential for taking a performance-based design (PBD) approach to these fire scenarios. The Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) is the most frequently used and validated fire modeling software; however, studies of low-pressure water mist fire suppression modeling in ship engine rooms are rare. This paper contributes to the current literature by using the FDS to model a series of fire suppression scenarios defined by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) Circulars, including spray and pool fires with heptane and diesel oil, as well as exposed and obstructed fires. The simulation results are compared to data from full-scale tests conducted at recognized fire testing laboratories. Furthermore, an analysis of both the experimental and model uncertainties is carried out to assess the simulations performance. In general, a good agreement in compartment temperature evolution and fire extinguishing time is found for the modeled fire scenarios. The results support the application of FDS in a PBD approach for the design of water mist fire extinguishing systems for machinery spaces in ships. In this way, designers and engineers could model different machinery volumes and nozzles spacings that differ from those prescribed for a one story square engine room of the IMO, and, thus, predict the evolution of temperatures and extinguishing times for get the authorities approval.

An advanced beam-column element for analysis of frames in fires

Local structural response to seakeeping and slamming loads

Fire resistance of concrete-filled steel plate composite (CFSPC) walls

Experimental investigation of concrete-filled square hollow section columns subjected to non-uniform exposure