Strategies for creative job-seeking after retirement in Japan

The government of Malaysia has recently been urged to increase the mandatory retirement age of employees from 60 to 65 years old. It prompted many reactions from the netizens, labour unions, politicians as well as the publics. Some say the higher retirement age will thwart the country’s development as the younger generation will have less job opportunities. However, some say by raising the retirement age, the economic growth would be better as life expectancy of people has increased and the country is lacking of workforces. This paper descriptively examines the impact of increasing the retirement age from perspective of demographic and health, graduates’ labour market and the government’s fiscal policy. The analysis canvasses several financial and non-financial indicators provided by Bank Negara Malaysia, Department of Statistics, Ministry of Education and Ministry of Finance. The analysis generally concluded that at current economic growth, recent trend of graduates’ labour market and current demography and health pattern, Malaysia is not yet ready to increase the retirement age to 65.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine how promotion- and prevention-focussed job crafting impacts the motivation of older employees to continue working beyond retirement age. The authors hypothesized that promotion-focussed job crafting (i.e. increasing social and structural job resources, and challenging job demands) relates positively and prevention-focussed job crafting (i.e. decreasing hindering job demands) relates negatively with motivation to continue working after reaching the official retirement age, and that these relationships are sequential mediated by work sense of coherence and burnout. Design/methodology/approach Data from 229 older employees (mean age=55.77) were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Findings Promotion-focussed job crafting was positively and prevention-focussed job crafting was negatively related with employees’ work sense of coherence, which was predictive of employees’ burnout, which in turn was predictive of motivation to continue working beyond retirement age. Research limitations/implications Despite the cross-sectional study design, the results unfold how promotion- and prevention-focussed job crafting are related with motivation to continue working beyond retirement age through work sense of coherence and burnout. Practical implications Given today’s aging and shrinking workforce, older employees working beyond their official retirement age are a necessity for organizations’ functional capability. The results suggest that organizations should encourage employees’ promotion-focussed job crafting and limit prevention-focussed job crafting. Promotion-focussed job crafting facilitates employees’ work sense of coherence, which keeps them healthy and motivates older employees to continue working beyond retirement age. Originality/value This study adds to the literatures on job crafting and motivation to continue working beyond retirement age and explicates intervening processes in this relationship.

PurposeThe article seeks to contribute to a better understanding of older people's situation in the labour market in three Baltic countries – Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Three Nordic countries are taken as a reference point to compare the countries in order to better understand the situation from a comparative point of view. The article asks the questions: Does a longer working life for older people contribute to their better economic situation? How satisfied are they with a longer working life and their working conditions? Do they experience any discrimination in the labour market because of their age?Design/methodology/approachIn order to understand the situation of older people in the labour market, the authors employ welfare state models and the Active Ageing Index. The welfare state models help us to understand the context in which the working life of older people is taking place. The Active Ageing Index helps to gain a better understanding of the employment domain of active ageing. The analysis is based on several Europe-wide data sources: statistics on earnings from Eurostat database, information on income, job prospects, occupational safety and health, training, working life perspectives from the European Working Conditions Survey as well as a special survey, conducted by the authors, of Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian residents aged 50 years and older.FindingsAnalysis conducted reveals that in the Baltic countries older employees, although actively participating in the labour market, face unfavourable material, physical and psychological situation in the labour market more frequently than their younger colleagues. The findings show that the most important factors influencing older employees' decision to stay longer in the labour market in the Baltic countries are linked mostly to welfare state-related issues, i.e. financial benefits, healthcare, possibility to reconcile work and family obligations. These welfare state-related issues are even more important for those who are going to stay longer in the labour market after reaching the retirement age.Originality/valueThis article contributes to a better understanding of older (50+) people's situation in the labour market. It suggests that, while the increasing employment of older people increases the Active Ageing Index and is generally viewed positively, in some countries with less developed welfare states high employment rates of older employees, although providing them with an additional means of livelihood, do not ensure a higher quality of life and, on the contrary, act as a factor reducing the quality of work and, at the same time, the quality of life.

Population decline and ageing are the major future demographic trends that most developed countries have in common; these processes are caused by ongoing low fertility and increased longevity over the last four decades. Germany is no exception here. This general population trend is also true for the supply side of the labour market. In the long run fewer and fewer young people will enter the labour market whilst a growing number of older workers will depart from the labour force. Shrinking and ageing of the working force are expected to speed up between 2020 and 2030, when the large birth cohorts born between the 1950s and 1960s, are expected to withdraw from working (United Nations 2010; Dorbritz 2008; Hohn et al. 2008, Fuchs et al. 2011). However, shrinking and ageing of the labour force are by themselves not the main problems of labour markets or social policies when it comes to the fi scal consequences of demographic change. Moreover, the combination of increased longevity and falling retirement age is the reason that will force policy makers to take action. According to this age/employment paradox (Walker 2006: 79), reforms of the statutory pension system which lengthen the working life span are necessary in order to re-adjust the ratio between working population and retirees and thus stabilise the fi scal balance between contributions and benefi ts. Not to mention the fact that reducing unemployment in general or promoting an earlier entry of young people into the labour market will additionally help to achieve fi scal sustainability Retirement policies are not restricted to safeguard income in retirement age. They also have effects on governing the supply side of the labour market. The trends of the last forty years with respect to retirement policies and their consequences on the labour force participation of the elderly in Germany can be described as a double paradigm shift of retirement policy (Backer et al. 2009). The 1972 pension reform was the onset of decreasing retirement ages. Older workers were now eligible to receive benefi ts from old-age pensions without any deductibles before reaching the age of 65. Compared to previous birth cohorts older workers now had the opportunity to choose voluntary pre-retirement and thus extend their remaining years in enjoying retirement. On the other hand, older workers were advised to leave the labour market and were sent into retirement before reaching the legal retirement age in order to make room for younger workers. In this context, older people who had lost their jobs had signifi cantly lower chances to fi nd new jobs than their younger peers and thus often remained in long-term unemployment until reaching retireComparative Population Studies – Zeitschrift fur Bevolkerungswissenschaft Vol. 35, 4 (2010): 703-708 (Date of release: 26.01.2012)

In this paper, we investigate the effect of the level of English skills on the labour market outcomes of Turkish women, using data from the Adult Education Survey of 2007. By adopting a bivariate equation framework, we jointly model the effect of English skills on labour market status and, conditional on being a wage earner, on monthly earnings and occupational status. The multinomial equation that explains labour market status allows for a different effect of language knowledge on the probability of being employed, unemployed but actively looking for a job, an unpaid family worker or involved in household tasks. The results indicate that being proficient in English is conditionally associated with a higher probability of being employed as a wage earner and, to a lesser extent, unemployed but looking for a job, whereas it decreases the likelihood of being involved in household tasks. Moreover, there is a significant conditional correlation between having a high level of skills in English and earnings, which is only modestly reduced when job-related variables and (especially) occupation dummies are included as additional controls. Indeed, being proficient in English barely affects occupational status when selection into employment status is controlled for. Therefore, the knowledge of foreign languages (in this case English) seems to stimulate labour market participation and earnings capacity, but does not substantially affect the occupational position of women in the Turkish labour market.

In this paper, we investigate the effect of the level of English skills on the labour market outcomes of Turkish women, using data from the Adult Education Survey of 2007. By adopting a bivariate equation framework, we jointly model the effect of English skills on labour market status and, conditional on being a wage earner, on monthly earnings and occupational status. The multinomial equation that explains labour market status allows for a different effect of language knowledge on the probability of being employed, unemployed but actively looking for a job, an unpaid family worker or involved in household tasks. The results indicate that being proficient in English is conditionally associated with a higher probability of being employed as a wage earner and, to a lesser extent, unemployed but looking for a job, whereas it decreases the likelihood of being involved in household tasks. Moreover, there is a significant conditional correlation between having a high level of skills in English and earnings, which is only modestly reduced when job-related variables and (especially) occupation dummies are included as additional controls. Indeed, being proficient in English barely affects occupational status when selection into employment status is controlled for. Therefore, the knowledge of foreign languages (in this case English) seems to stimulate labour market participation and earnings capacity, but does not substantially affect the occupational position of women in the Turkish labour market.

In this paper, we investigate the effect of the level of English skills on the labour market outcomes of Turkish women, using data from the Adult Education Survey of 2007. By adopting a bivariate equation framework, we jointly model the effect of English skills on labour market status and, conditional on being a wage earner, on monthly earnings and occupational status. The multinomial equation that explains labour market status allows for a different effect of language knowledge on the probability of being employed, unemployed but actively looking for a job, an unpaid family worker or involved in household tasks. The results indicate that being proficient in English is conditionally associated with a higher probability of being employed as a wage earner and, to a lesser extent, unemployed but looking for a job, whereas it decreases the likelihood of being involved in household tasks. Moreover, there is a significant conditional correlation between having a high level of skills in English and earnings, which is only modestly reduced when job-related variables and (especially) occupation dummies are included as additional controls. Indeed, being proficient in English barely affects occupational status when selection into employment status is controlled for. Therefore, the knowledge of foreign languages (in this case English) seems to stimulate labour market participation and earnings capacity, but does not substantially affect the occupational position of women in the Turkish labour market.

BackgroundPolicy makers in aging societies aim for the extension of work lives by increasing the official retirement age. Despite these efforts, many people stop working before reaching this retirement age. The main reason for early retirement is poor health. Health in turn is influenced by exposure to the work environment. Furthermore, health and work stress are influenced by education, which may lead to different effects for the lowly and the highly educated.ObjectiveThis study examines the relationship between work stress and retirement age. It investigates whether this relationship is mediated by health and moderated by education. Three dimensions of health are taken into account: self-rated health (SRH), depressive symptoms, and high cardiovascular risk diseases (HCVR).MethodsA German subsample of the longitudinal Survey of Health, Aging and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) was linked with register data of the German Public Pension Scheme (SHARE-RV). The sample followed 302 individuals aged 50 to 65 years at baseline from 2004 to 2014. The data contains information on work stress, measured by job control and effort–reward–imbalance (ERI), health, and age of retirement. Multi-group structural equation modeling was applied to analyze the direct and indirect effects of work stress on retirement age via health. Work stress was lagged so that it temporally preceded health and retirement age.ResultsLower job control and poorer SRH lead to a lower retirement age. Health does not operate as a mediator in the relationship between work stress and retirement age. Education moderates the relationship between work stress and health: high ERI leads to better SRH and better physical health of higher educated persons. Low job control increases the risk of depressive symptoms for persons with less education.ConclusionsImproving stressful working conditions, particularly improving job control, can prolong the working lives of employees and postpone retirement.

Population decline and ageing are the major future demographic trends that most developed countries have in common; these processes are caused by ongoing low fertility and increased longevity over the last four decades. Germany is no exception here. This general population trend is also true for the supply side of the labour market. In the long run fewer and fewer young people will enter the labour market whilst a growing number of older workers will depart from the labour force. Shrinking and ageing of the working force are expected to speed up between 2020 and 2030, when the large birth cohorts born between the 1950s and 1960s, are expected to withdraw from working (United Nations 2010; Dorbritz 2008; Hohn et al. 2008, Fuchs et al. 2011). However, shrinking and ageing of the labour force are by themselves not the main problems of labour markets or social policies when it comes to the fi scal consequences of demographic change. Moreover, the combination of increased longevity and falling retirement age is the reason that will force policy makers to take action. According to this age/employment paradox (Walker 2006: 79), reforms of the statutory pension system which lengthen the working life span are necessary in order to re-adjust the ratio between working population and retirees and thus stabilise the fi scal balance between contributions and benefi ts. Not to mention the fact that reducing unemployment in general or promoting an earlier entry of young people into the labour market will additionally help to achieve fi scal sustainability Retirement policies are not restricted to safeguard income in retirement age. They also have effects on governing the supply side of the labour market. The trends of the last forty years with respect to retirement policies and their consequences on the labour force participation of the elderly in Germany can be described as a double paradigm shift of retirement policy (Backer et al. 2009). The 1972 pension reform was the onset of decreasing retirement ages. Older workers were now eligible to receive benefi ts from old-age pensions without any deductibles before reaching the age of 65. Compared to previous birth cohorts older workers now had the opportunity to choose voluntary pre-retirement and thus extend their remaining years in enjoying retirement. On the other hand, older workers were advised to leave the labour market and were sent into retirement before reaching the legal retirement age in order to make room for younger workers. In this context, older people who had lost their jobs had signifi cantly lower chances to fi nd new jobs than their younger peers and thus often remained in long-term unemployment until reaching retireComparative Population Studies – Zeitschrift fur Bevolkerungswissenschaft Vol. 35, 4 (2010): 703-708 (Date of release: 26.01.2012)

Retention of senior employees is a challenge for most developed countries. We aimed to identify psychosocial work environment factors of importance for the retention of older employees by evaluating the association between the psychosocial work environment and voluntary early retirement in a longitudinal study. Data about work environment, health, and background factors came from the DANES 2008 questionnaire survey. We followed members of the Danish early retirement scheme for up to 4years in national registers-focusing on the age range, 60-64years, where early retirement was possible. We used Cox proportional hazard regression to analyze the rate of early retirement. The study included 16 psychosocial work environment factors. The following 10 psychosocial factors were significant predictors of early retirement in covariate adjusted analyses: Low job satisfaction, low influence in job, low possibilities for development, low role clarity, perceived age discrimination, low recognition from management, low workplace justice, poor trust in management, poor leadership quality, and poor predictability. No significant association with early retirement was found for work pace, quantitative demands, emotional demands, role conflicts, social community between colleagues, and trust between colleagues. Older employees with high job satisfaction, influence, possibilities for development, positive management relations, and jobs with no age discrimination remained longer at the labor market. However, we found no evidence that low demands or good relations between colleagues could influence older employees' decision on early retirement.

A study on the relationship between employability and the retirement intentions of older workers A study on the relationship between employability and the retirement intentions of older workers Gedrag & Organisatie, volume 24, November 2011, nr. 4, pp. 374-391.Very recently, it has been decided that the retirement age in the Netherlands will increase to 66 in 2020. Therefore, it is more and more important to understand what motivates older employees to work until their pension age (as opposed to quitting the workforce prematurely). In this study, among 151 Dutch employees of 45 years and older, the central aim was to examine the relationships between workers’ employability perceptions and their intention to work until their retirement age. Additionally, we have investigated to what extent ‘the learning value of the job’, ‘participation in training and education’, and ‘career management’ relate to workers’ employability perceptions. Results of Structural Equation Modelling showed that employability is a significant predictor of the intention to work until retirement age. Moreover, our results indicated that ‘learning value of the job’ and ‘participation in training and education in adjacent area’s’ are important antecedents of one’s employability. The main conclusion of this study is that the higher older employees’ perceptions regarding their own employability, the stronger their intention to work until the official pension age will be. Moreover, a solid learning value of the job as well as possibilities for training in adjacent areas will contribute positively to the employability perceptions of older employees.

This article explores whether and to what degree information on the socioeconomic status – measured by professional status and disposable household income – allows making reliable statements on the willingness to remain in work in retirement age. These observations are controlled for professional and individual characteristics. The data basis is constituted by the study entitled “Continuing in employment in pensionable age” with N = 1,500 dependent employees aged from 55 to under 65. Logistic regressions show that the socioeconomic status makes a statistically-significant contribution towards explaining the willingness to continue in employment: In comparison to employees with a lower or medium professional status, those individuals who have a high professional status tended to be significantly more willing to remain in working life for longer. There is a negative connection between the disposable household income and the willingness to remain in employment in retirement age. The significant effects that were found are however restricted to the women in the study.

Based on revelation principle, two types of employment agency in Changsha employment market are analyzed. Revelation principle indicates that every allocation can be reached by a direct mechanics. Mechanics is established that employment agency will work as agent for the jobseekers and provide with job opportunities, and this mechanics vary from the type of agency. Employment agency model is based on revelation principle, in search of whether employment agency will show the real information dissemination process. Conclusion is reached that public employment office is a better solution for labor market than private employment agency.

Recasting Pensions in Europe: Policy Challenges and Political Strategies to Pass Reforms

The problem of age discrimination in the labour sector has become even more relevant, as the increase in the retirement age and the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia reinforce ageism. The article aims to assess the incidence of age discrimination in the labour market of the Sverdlovsk Region and examine employers’ behaviour towards people nearing retirement. The mixed methodology includes quantitative (analysis of statistics, questionnaire survey, content analysis) and qualitative (in-depth interviews with employers) research methods. While in the 1990s age discrimination was evident and expressed in the exclusion of older workers from the employment sector, now age discrimination is latent and has different manifestations. The results showed that people aged over 45 have less job opportunities in the labour market. Thus, most of them choose to maintain employment. This strategy, however, does not protect against other discriminatory practices such as displacement to less paid positions, reduced pay rate, etc. This situation leads to the decrease in the average wage of workers aged 50-55 by approximately 25%. We can conclude that employers did not change their behaviour and continue using discriminatory practices to maximise the return on human capital, shifting the risks of pension reform to employees. The government is trying to smooth over the differences between the effectiveness of the regional economic system, focused on maximising the use of regional human resources, and the effectiveness of individual organisations by protecting labour rights and promoting the employment of people nearing retirement. However, the government support measures mainly focus on training or retraining of people aged over 50, while employers lack economic incentives to reconsider their attitude towards older workers. Thus, we recommend developing governmental mechanisms for encouraging employers to change their personnel policy concerning employees aged over 50.