Steroidal saponins in edible and medicinal plants: species distribution, bioactivity, biosynthesis, and regulation

Steroidal saponins are a class of specialized metabolites essential for plant's response to biotic and abiotic stresses. They are also important raw materials for the industrial production of steroid drugs. Steroidal saponins are present in some monocots, such as Dioscorea and Paris, but their distribution, origin, and evolution in plants remain poorly understood. By reconstructing the evolutionary history of the steroidal saponin-associated module (SSAM) in plants, we reveal that the steroidal saponin pathway has its origin in Asparagus and Dioscorea. Through evaluating the distribution and evolutionary pattern of steroidal saponins in angiosperms, we further show that steroidal saponins originated multiple times in angiosperms, and exist in early diverged lineages of certain monocot lineages including Asparagales, Dioscoreales, and Liliales. In these lineages, steroidal saponins are synthesized through the high copy and/or high expression mechanisms of key genes in SSAM. Together with shifts in gene evolutionary rates and amino acid usage, these molecular mechanisms shape the current distribution and diversity of steroidal saponins in plants. Consequently, our results provide new insights into the distribution, diversity and evolutionary history of steroidal saponins in plants, and enhance our understanding of plants' resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses. Additionally, fundamental understanding of the steroidal saponin biosynthesis will facilitate their industrial production and pharmacological applications.

BackgroundIdentifying factors influencing plant management allows understanding how processes of domestication operate. Uncertain availability of resources is a main motivation for managing edible plants, but little is known about management motives of non-edible resources like medicinal and ceremonial plants. We hypothesized that uncertain availability of resources would be a general factor motivating their management, but other motives could operate simultaneously. Uncertainty and risk might be less important motives in medicinal than in edible plants, while for ceremonial plants, symbolic and spiritual values would be more relevant.MethodsWe inventoried edible, medicinal, and ceremonial plants in Ixcatlán, Oaxaca, Mexico, and conducted in-depth studies with 20 native and naturalized species per use type; we documented their cultural importance and abundance by interviewing 25 households and sampling vegetation in 33 sites. Consumption amounts and preferences were studied through surveys and free listings with 38 interviewees. Management intensity and risk indexes were calculated through PCA and their relation analyzed through regression analyses. Canonical methods allowed identifying the main sociocultural and ecological factors influencing management of plants per use type.ResultsNearly 64, 63, and 55% of all ceremonial, edible, and medicinal wild plants recorded, respectively, are managed in order to maintain or increase their availability, embellishing environments, and because of ethical reasons and curiosity. Management intensity was higher in edible plants under human selection and associated with risk. Management of ceremonial and medicinal plants was not associated with indexes of risk or uncertainty in their availability. Other sociocultural and ecological factors influence management intensity, the most important being reciprocal relations and abundance perception.ConclusionsPlant management through practices and collectively regulated strategies is strongly related to control of risk and uncertainty in edible plants, compared with medicinal and ceremonial plants, in which reciprocal interchanges, curiosity, and spiritual values are more important factors. Understanding how needs, worries, social relations, and ethical values influence management decisions is important to understand processes of constructing management strategies and how domestication could be started in the past and are operated at the present.

Approximately 110 types of medicinal materials are listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, both for medicinal purposes and for use as food. There are several domestic scholars who have carried out research on edible plant medicine in China and the results are satisfactory. Though these related articles have appeared in domestic magazines and journals, many of them are yet to be translated into English. Most of the research stays in the extraction and quantitative testing stage, and there are a few medicinal and edible plants that are still under in-depth study. A majority of these edible and herbal plants are also highly enriched in polysaccharides, and this has an effect on immune systems for the prevention of cancer, inflammation, and infection. Comparing the polysaccharide composition of medicinal and edible plants, the monosaccharide and polysaccharide species were identified. It is found that different polysaccharides of different sizes have different pharmacological properties, with some polysaccharides containing special monosaccharides. The pharmacological properties of polysaccharides can be summarized as immunomodulatory, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive and anti-hyperlipemic, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties. There have been no poisonous effects found in studies of plant polysaccharides, probably because the substances have a long history of use and are safe. In this paper, the application potential of polysaccharides in medicinal and edible plants in Xinjiang was reviewed, and the research progress in the extraction, separation, identification, and pharmacology of these plant polysaccharides was reviewed. At present, the research progress of plant polysaccharides in medicines and food in Xinjiang has not been reported. This paper will provide a data summary for the development and utilization of medical and food plant resources in Xinjiang.

Steroidal saponins are an important type of plant-specific metabolite that are essential for plants' responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. Because of their extensive pharmacological activities, steroidal saponins are also important industrial raw materials for the production of steroidal drugs. In recent years, more and more studies have explored the biosynthesis of steroidal saponins in plants, but most of them only focused on the biosynthesis of their molecular skeleton, diosgenin, and their subsequent glycosylation modification mechanism needs to be further studied. In addition, the biosynthetic regulation mechanism of steroidal saponins, their distribution pattern, and their molecular evolution in plants remain unclear. In this review, we summarized and discussed recent studies on the biosynthesis, molecular regulation, and function of steroidal saponins. Finally, we also reviewed the distribution and molecular evolution of steroidal saponins in plants. The elucidation of the biosynthesis, regulation, and molecular evolutionary mechanisms of steroidal saponins is crucial to provide new insights and references for studying their distribution, diversity, and evolutionary history in plants. Furthermore, a deeper understanding of steroidal saponin biosynthesis will contribute to their industrial production and pharmacological applications.

BackgroundMountains, shaped by geophysical barriers and environmental gradients and with biodiversity, serve as critical hotspots of co-evolved biocultural diversity and traditional ecological knowledge. Within China’s Hengduan Mountain Range, the Wuliang and Ailao Mountains (Yunnan Province, southwestern China) are global biodiversity conservation priorities. Jingdong Yi Autonomous County, encircled by mountain ranges, possesses exceptional biological and biocultural resources. Meanwhile, local traditional markets emerge as ethnobiologically vital nexus, sustaining socioeconomic interaction while serving as reservoirs of genetic resources with associated traditional knowledge. Therefore, this study aims to (1) Systematically document edible & medicinal plants and associated traditional knowledge in Jingdong County, and identify culturally significant species for local communities. (2) Explore the multidimensional functions of traditional markets and clarify their key contributions. (3) Clarify how and why traditional markets can further enhance local wisdom preservation and community resilience.MethodsThe ethnobotanical surveys were conducted both in the large periodic traditional markets across three seasons in Jingdong County to document utilized plants and associated traditional knowledge. Additional ethnobotanical investigations were conducted in 7 towns and villages to gather supplementary information on some key cultural and economic plants. The species of significant importance to local people were identified using the Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) method, and comparisons among local ethnic groups, previous investigations were conducted with the Jaccard similarity index (JI) to identify specificity and commonalities. For each documented species, the vernacular names, growth form, source, consumed parts, processing method, and the effectiveness, and additional use(s) of utilized plants were recorded. The original disease records were standardized according to the WHO International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC-3).ResultsThe ethnobotanical surveys documented 226 taxa (including species and varieties) from 84 families and 187 genera, with Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, and Fabaceae being the most frequently represented families. Of these, 59 taxa were primarily used as edible plants (EP), 70 taxa as medicinal plants (MP), and 97 taxa as medicinal food plants (MFP). For edible purposes, leaves were the predominated part and were typically stir-fried. For medicinal use, the main preparation method was decoction or alcohol maceration, and the primary used part were roots. A total of 47 human ailments mentioned by informants were classified into 13 ICPC-3 categories, with the “Immune System” category being the most numerous. The utilization of MFP and dietary regimen concepts reflects the rich biocultural diversity and survival wisdom of local people. A quantitative analysis using RFC demonstrated that plants such as Aralia gintungensis and Trachycarpus fortunei were important to local communites. Similarity analysis revealed that the difference between the Yi and Han people was minimal (JI = 0.62), whereas the plant species sold at the market and those used by village herbalists differed from each other (JI = 0.09). Additionally, in such remote areas, traditional markets serve as a critical nexus that connects livelihood support, knowledge transmission, and resource preservation.ConclusionThis study presented 226 taxa of edible and medicinal plants utilized by local communities in Jingdong, showcasing the rich biocultural diversity of this intermontane region. Additionally, the study analyzed how local traditional markets in remote mountainous areas function as essential hubs for socioeconomic interaction and living reservoirs of plant resources with their traditional knowledge. Our findings highlight the need to enhance attention and resource allocation to local markets, thereby enabling markets to mobilize their potentials in foresting the synergy between conservation and sustainable development through a bottom-up approach for the indigenous peoples and local communities.

BackgroundThe possibility to better understand the relationships within the men, the nature and their culture has extreme importance because allows the characterisation of social systems through their particular environmental perception, and provides useful tools for the development of conservation policies.MethodsThe present study was planned to disentangle environmental and cultural factors that are influencing the perception, knowledge and uses of edible and medicinal plants in rural communities of Cordoba (Argentina). Interviews an participant observation were conducted in nine rural communities located in three different biogeographical areas. Data about knowledge of medicinal and edible plants and sociocultural variables were obtained. Data were analysed by Principal Components Analysis (PCA).ResultsThe analysis of data confirmed that medicinal species are widely used whereas the knowledge on edible plants is eroding. The PCA showed four groups of communities, defined by several particular combinations of sociocultural and/or natural variables.ConclusionThis comprehensive approach suggests that in general terms the cultural environment has a stronger influence than the natural environment on the use of medicinal and edible plants in rural communities of Cordoba (Argentina).

Medicinal and edible plants used by the Lhoba people in Medog County, Tibet, China.

We analyze and compare plant knowledge and uses of medicinal and edible plants of two rural communities located in different phytogeographic regions. We hypothesize that there are differences in the number of edible and medicinal plants that people know and use between these communities because of environmental constraints. In addition, because of cultural erosion, we expect to find (a) a higher number of plants that people know as useful in comparison with the number of plants they actually use, and (b) a decrease in the number of useful plants cited when comparing male/female and younger/older categories. Results show a higher range of knowledge of medicinal plants than edible plants, and medicinal use included mainly those used to treat digestive problems. Based on statistical analyses, we present comparisons between the communities, age groups, and genders, and discuss how differences in these regions (e.g., geographic, ecological, cultural, etc.) may explain of the variation in the knowledge on wild useful plants between the communities.

Specialized foods (SF) with a predetermined chemical composition play an important role in the prevention of the most common nutrition-related diseases, including type 2 diabetes. Prospective sources of phytonutrients for the development of SF with antidiabetic action are among the priority areas of research in the field of diabetology and dietology. The methodology of search of promising plant sources of phytonutrients for SF included an analysis of the frequency of occurrence of edible and medicinal plants as part of multicomponent antidiabetic formulations traditionally used to treat DM in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine. To realize this goal. more than 200 publications have been analyzed. Of these, only 66 bibliographic sources contained multicomponent antidiabetic prescriptions in the form of collections from dried medicinal plant raw materials and multicomponent juices from fresh medicinal and edible plants. In total in the identified 66 publications, we found 550 multi-component formulations. It is shown that the leader plants are Bilberry - Vaccinium myrtillus L., Common beans-Phaseolus nanus L., Phaseolus vulgaris (L.) Savi var. nana Ach. and Great nettle-Urtica Dioica L. The results of this study can serve as the basis for the development of SF with a predetermined chemical composition using edible and medicinal plants.

Antioxidant activity of spirostanol saponins from Allii Macrostemonis Bulbus and their contents in different origins and processed products

IntroductionThe unique geographical environment of Guizhou Province, China, has nurtured rich resources of Lamiaceae. The Dong people have developed diverse medicinal and edible utilization methods for Lamiaceae plants through long-term practice. This study mainly aims to (1) document the medicinal and edible uses of Lamiaceae plants in the Dong community of Yangwei Village, Shangzhong Town, Liping County, Guizhou; (2) evaluate the chemical composition of five Lamiaceae species; and (3) provide a detailed account and assessment of the tea-making process of Elsholtzia rugulosa, a commonly used local plant, while exploring its potential for development as a specialty tea beverage.Material and methodsYangwei Village (Liping County), a representative Dong ethnic community with rich ethnobotanical knowledge of medicinal and edible plants, was selected as main study site. Ethnobotanical knowledge of Lamiaceae plants was collected through semi-structured interviews with key informants and participatory observations. Five Lamiaceae plants were chemically analyzed, with E. rugulosa selected as the primary research subject due to its traditional applications, rich bioactive compounds, and good processing adaptability. The processing workflow of E. rugulosa tea was thoroughly investigated, with improvements based on standard green, oolong, and black tea procedures. The resulting three flavored tea broths were then subjected to sensory and compound evaluations.ResultsThe survey documented 101 Lamiaceae species (39 genera), mostly herbs. Chemical analysis indicated significant development potential for Prunella vulgaris, Leonurus japonicus, and Perilla frutescens. Sensory evaluation showed optimized E. rugulosa infusions had translucent color, pure aroma, and mellow taste. The black tea flavored infusion exhibited higher total phenolics and flavonoids; the oolong tea flavored infusion excelled in free amino acids and dry matter; and the green tea flavored infusion contained the highest water extract. The optimized E. rugulosa tea enhanced taste and preserved bioactive compounds, aligning with the urban demand for health, naturally derived, and culturally meaningful beverage products.ConclusionThe findings documents Dong-specific ethnobotanical knowledge in Yangwei Village Lamiaceae plants, which is valuable for both conservation and sustainable use. The medicinal plants from the Lamiaceae family have significant development potential, especially in urban use and commercialization.

We analyze and compare plant knowledge and uses of medicinal and edible plants of two rural communities located in different phytogeographic regions. We hypothesize that there are differences in the number of edible and medicinal plants that people know and use between these communities because of environmental constraints. In addition, because of cultural erosion, we expect to find (a) a higher number of plants that people know as useful in comparison with the number of plants they actually use, and (b) a decrease in the number of useful plants cited when comparing male/female and younger/older categories. Results show a higher range of knowledge of medicinal plants than edible plants, and medicinal use included mainly those used to treat digestive problems. Based on statistical analyses, we present comparisons between the communities, age groups, and genders, and discuss how differences in these regions (e.g., geographic, ecological, cultural, etc.) may explain of the variation in the knowledge on wild useful plants between the communities.

There is a burgeoning need for the promotion of medicinal plants and edible fruit plants as crop in Botswana because these are re-emerging as health aid. Medicinal plants constitute one of the important overlooked areas of international development. They represent a form of biodiversity with the potential to do much good and not just in the healthcare. Indeed, the production and processing of medicinal plants offers the possibility of fundamentally upgrading the lives and well-being of peoples in rural regions. Botswana’s medicinal plants are over-harvested for use as human and livestock medicines. There is therefore, a risk of depletion and extinction of the most sought after species. Initiatives should be put in place to propagate, cultivate and conserve species population through the promotion of community-based and commercial nurseries. Naturally medicinal yields from the wild are unpredictable as the supplies are at the mercy of the weather, pests and other uncontrollable variables. Farming will even out the supply, regularize trade and make available to rural areas new sources of income. In international market, the opportunities are emerging day by day for the trade of medicinal plants to fetch foreign exchange for the country. In Botswana, pilot farmer based cultivation trials for selected number of threatened and indigenous species in home gardens to supply local needs and income generation are on-going. Hoodia gordonii(appetite suppressant), Harpagophytum procumbens (anti-inflammatory) and Artemisia afra (anti-malaria and antioxidant), Sclerocarya birrea (nutritional and medicinal) are some of the plants whose domestication offers a lucrative avenue for income generation as the global demand for plants as sources of drugs and novel foods increases. Initiatives to establish nurseries and ecological medicinal centres to encourage propagation and to provide species to local communities will assist in the conservation, sustainable use and offer opportunity for economic diversification. This paper explores the possibilities of cultivating medicinal and edible wild fruit plants of Botswana as cash crops. Key words: Botswana medicinal plants, edible wild fruits, herbal teas, domestication, economic value.

Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis, a medicinal plant that originated in Yunnan (China), has been over-harvested in the wild population, resulting in its artificial cultivation. Given the negative environmental impacts of the excessive use of phosphorus (P) fertilization, the application of organophosphate-degrading bacteria (OPDB) is a sustainable approach for improving the P use efficiency in Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis production. The present work aimed to analyze the effects of three organic phosphate-solubilizing bacteria of Bacillus on the yield and quality of P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis and the P concentrations in the soil. All the inoculation treatments distinctly increased the rhizome biomass, steroidal, and total saponin concentrations of the rhizomes and the Olsen-P and organic P in the soil. The highest growth rate of rhizomes biomass, steroidal saponins, available phosphorus, and total phosphorus content was seen in the S7 group, which was inoculated with all three OPDB strains, showing increases of 134.58%, 132.56%, 51.64%, and 17.19%, respectively. The highest total saponin content was found in the group inoculated with B. mycoides and B. wiedmannii, which increased by 33.68%. Moreover, the highest organic P content was seen in the group inoculated with B. wiedmannii and B. proteolyticus, which increased by 96.20%. In addition, the rhizome biomass was significantly positively correlated with the saponin concentration, together with the positive correlation between the Olsen-P and organic P and total P. It is concluded that inoculation with organophosphate-degrading bacteria improved the biomass and medicinal ingredients of the rhizome in P. polyphylla var. yunnanensis, coupled with increased soil P fertility, with a mixture of the three bacteria performing best.

Screening and identification of steroidal saponins from Anemarrhena asphodeloides employing UPLC tandem triple quadrupole linear ion trap mass spectrometry