Status of human-wildlife conflict in Dibru-Saikhowa National Park of Assam, India

Human–wildlife conflict (HWC) is a growing concern in the Nuwara Eliya Divisional Secretariat Division (DSD) in the central highlands of Sri Lanka. This study investigates the nature and distribution of HWC, with particular focus on agricultural damage, livestock losses, infrastructure destruction, and human injuries. Data were collected through field surveys, expert opinions, satellite imagery, and census data, including interviews with 720 farmers (conducted between 2021 and 2022) and 25 online questionnaires, which provided expert insights on HWC. Animals such as wild boars, bandicoots, barking deer, toque macaques, porcupines, buffaloes, sambar, and leopards were found to be key to HWC, contributing to crop raiding, livestock predation, and infrastructure damage, and through the analytical hierarchy process (AHP), the wild boar was determined to have the greatest impact. Spatial analysis revealed conflict hotspots near forest and tea plantation boundaries, emphasizing the influence of land use and proximity to wildlife habitats. Mitigation strategies were explored; most farmers utilize multiple conflict reduction strategies, with varying efficacy. These findings underline the importance of developing region-specific strategies for HWC management, promoting sustainable agricultural practices, and fostering coexistence between wildlife and local communities.

This study focuses on various aspects of Human-wildlife conflict in Basanta community forest of Kailali district. The human wildlife conflict is at increasing trend and has become one of the challenging problem for the ruralcommunities. The main objective of this study was to explore over all the human-wildlife conflict events in the study area. Focus group discussion, Key informant survey and questionnaire survey were carried out during data collection. Data were analyzed using descriptive analysis such as percentage, mean, frequency etc. and were presented in figures, bar diagrams and charts. This study showed that the crop damage, property damage, livestock damage were common and the wild animals like elephant, wild boar, blue bull, tiger, deer were more responsible for the conflict in the recent years.
 Socio-economic indicators such as gender status, educational level, religion, land tenureship, income source, and ethnicity were calculated. The major crops grown in the area were rice, wheat, maize, masuro, sugarcane etc. According the respondents, rice, wheat, maize had been damaged mostly during the previous year. Except elephant, blue bull and wild boar was the most problematic animal during the season.Managed compensation schemes, Environmental awareness programs and public participation are the major aspects that should be considered to mitigate the human wildlife conflict in the area.

Human Wildlife Conflict (HWC) is one of the major challenges for wildlife conservation globally. This study assessed the status of HWC and the associated mitigation measures in two villages - Okhreni and Chilaune - of Sundarijal Shivapuri Buffer Zone User Committee at Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park (SNNP). Primary data were collected through household questionnaire surveys; key informant interviews and secondary data were collected from official records of SNNP, relevant journals, books, and reports. The survey was conducted in 115 HHs of both villages. 90 HHs were surveyed out of 300 HHs in Okhreni whereas 25 HHs were surveyed out of 50 HHs in Chilaune. Likert scale was used to identify the most problematic animal species involved in HWC. Wild boar (Sus scrofa), Himalayan Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus), crested porcupine (Hystrix brachyuran), rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) and barking deer (Muntiacus muntijak) are the major animal species involved in HWC. 95% respondents from Okhreni and 97% respondents from Chilaune experienced crop damage by wild animals, with those near the forest being more affected. Maize was the most targeted crop followed by millet and wheat. Only a single case of human injury has been registered in the last five years. Crop depredation by wild boar was most prevalent in the study area. People from both villages are not satisfied with the existing compensation measures. However, the lack of incidences of livestock depredation and human injuries and fatalities combined with peoples’ awareness about the significance of wildlife could be the probable reasons for positive attitudes towards wildlife and wildlife conservation in SNNP. People should be encouraged to cultivate less preferable and unpalatable crops and plants that are economically profitable as well. This could provide an alternative source of income and help reduce the incidences of HWC in the study area.

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is an escalating humanitarian issue and a conservation concern. In terms of protection and management, areas at high risk of HWC are not necessarily afforded the same resources as areas prioritized for protection. To improve allocation of limited protection resources and HWC mitigation efficiency, we determined management priorities based on HWC risk and people's attitudes toward wildlife around the Giant Panda National Park. We constructed an ensemble species distribution model with 1959 species' distribution loci and 337 conflict event records. This model was used to simulate the spatial distribution patterns of HWC risk and to evaluate the influence of diverse environmental factors. A survey of people's attitudes toward wildlife was conducted in 155 villages around the Giant Panda National Park. Priority areas for HWC management were concentrated near protected areas, where wildlife habitats and populations were recovering and expanding. We obtained 947 questionnaires, which showed that some residents were highly aware of conservation and had a high tolerance for wildlife, even when they were living in areas at high risk of HWC. However, people who had encountered conflicts with wild boar were more likely to have negative attitudes toward other wildlife, even giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). Thus, HWC may lead to the generalization of negative attitudes toward wildlife conservation. In our study area, environmental (e.g., building fences and changing crop types) and social measures (e.g., insurance and ecocompensation) have been implemented to mitigate HWC. Our results can provide an important basis for the allocation of compensation resources and improvement of HWC management in areas of high conservation priority. Future studies should further explore how to develop more personalized HWC management plans based on the characteristics of different regions.

The Daba Mountain area is recognized as one of the global biodiversity hotspots. In recent years, human–wildlife conflicts (HWCs) in this region have intensified significantly. Understanding and mitigating the damage caused by wildlife is crucial for maintaining ecological balance and enhancing public welfare. We analyzed the current status of HWCs in the southern foothills of the Daba Mountains through semi-structured interviews and field surveys. Additionally, using the collected data on HWC occurrences, we predicted HWC hotspots using the maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model. The results: (1) A total of 449 cases of actual HWC incidents were investigated, primarily involving wild boars (Sus scrofa; 81.96%) and Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus; 18.04%). The main types of HWC included crop destruction and attacks on beehives. (2) Incidents of damage caused by wild boars and Asiatic black bears were concentrated in the summer months, particularly from June to August. (3) In the study area, 21 out of 25 townships reported HWC cases. Notably, the townships of Fuxing, Gaoyan and Gaoguan were identified as the most affected, with Gaoyan and Fuxing experiencing the highest amounts of loss. (4) The variable of DTP (Distance to Protected Area) was found to have the greatest influence on the hotspot distributions of HWCs. The hotspot zone exhibited a strip-like distribution along the northwest–southeast axis in the central part of the study area. The total area of the HWC hotspots was 1352.56 km2. The largest hotspot areas were located in Xiuqi Town, Gaoyan Town, and Houping Township, accounting for 13.26%, 12.01%, and 7.83% of the total hotspot area, respectively. HWC hotspots require robust management measures to mitigate wildlife damage to local communities and enhance indigenous people’s engagement in wildlife conservation. Implementation of physical measures and compensation schemes may be necessary in these hotspots to alleviate the financial burden on indigenous populations. Our findings may provide valuable insights for the future formulation of biodiversity conservation policies and HWC mitigation strategies in the Daba Mountains.

Significant financial losses caused by human-wildlife conflict (HWC) hinder long-term conservation efforts in developing countries. HWC is a widespread and persistent challenge to conservation that adversely affects both humans and wildlife. In the current study, we assessed the nature and magnitude of HWC in Lakki Marwat, Pakistan, by interviewing 185 randomly selected participants through semi-structured questionnaires. Six animal species were identified by the locals as responsible for HWC due to livestock depredation and crop raiding: grey wolf (Canis lupus), golden jackal (Canis aureus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), jungle cat (Felis chaus), and wild boar (Sus scrofa). Respondents reported 639 livestock losses to carnivores in the past two years (2021–2022), translating into an annual economic loss of $9,598. The grey wolf and golden jackal were responsible for 83% of the total financial loss due to livestock depredation. Location, prey type, prey age, and herding practices significantly impacted livestock depredation. Wild boar, golden jackal, and red fox caused an annual monetary loss of $4,107 through crop damage. According to local perceptions, wild boar was the most dangerous species in the study area, followed by the golden jackal and jungle cat. The majority (90%) of the respondents possessed a negative attitude towards wild boar, golden jackal, and jungle cat. Maintaining smaller herds, education, public awareness, financial incentives, and coordination between the local community and wildlife officials may reduce HWC in the study area.Clinical trial number: Not applicable.

Simple SummaryFor minimizing “Human Wildlife Conflicts” (HWCs), it is important to understand the interactions of wildlife with human activities—especially in non-protected areas. The wild boar (Sus scrofa) is one of the most widely spread and highly adaptable ungulate species–referred to as a pest species. The increase in wild boar numbers and ranges is linked to the increasing economic and ecological impacts. In Pakistan, wild boar numbers are rapidly multiplying because, generally, it is hunted neither for meat nor for trophies by locals because of strict religious prohibitions. However, in some rural areas, wild boars are killed by the farmers—mostly using firearms—yet, the rate of these kills does not match this animal’s overall reproductive rate. Moreover, a decline in the numbers of apex predators is also adding to the ever-increasing wild boar population. Being a pest species with huge numbers, the wild boar is one of the chief reasons for HWCs in Pakistan. In addition to the economic losses (crop damage and orchard damage) caused by wild boars, a hostile attitude in local communities has developed towards wildlife, in general. In the current study, we investigated the economic effects of the wild boar on pastoral communities’ livelihoods and on locals’ attitudes towards wild boars in northwestern Pakistan. The results revealed that the major crops raided by wild boars were maize, wheat, and vegetables. Most respondents considered the wild boar to be a very common species and wished for its complete elimination from the area. We believe that properly monitoring and controlling the wild boar population, coupled with compensation schemes, can be very promising for minimizing this kind of HWCs.Conservation goals can only be best achieved when there is firm support and cooperation from locals, especially in emerging economies where poor communities often bear most of the cost of human–wildlife conflicts (HWCs). In this study, we explored the economic losses caused by wild boars in two districts, i.e., the Peshawar district and the Nowshera district, in north-western Pakistan. Between May and June 2022, 589 respondents from 53 villages were interviewed. The results revealed that the wild boar was chiefly involved in crop raiding, causing an annual economic loss of USD 12,030 (USD 20.42/household). The highly raided crops included maize (40.24%), followed by wheat (24.95%), vegetables (22.65%), and sugarcane (6.29%). Wild boars were also held accountable for orchard damages. Most people consider the wild boar a common species in the area and want it completely eliminated. We believe that the increasing wild boar population is alarming and should be noticed. The government should collaborate with the local communities to use innovative methods to deter wild boars. Compensation schemes for crop damages should be launched. Moreover, the regular investigation of the wild boar population size and their carrying capacities should be enlisted as integral parts of wildlife management in the area.

Land-use changes and the expansion of protected areas (PAs) have fostered increased interactions between humans and wildlife, resulting in an escalation of human-wildlife conflict (HWC) globally. However, HWC spatiotemporal pattern variation and its associations with PAs and land-use change remain poorly understood. To address this knowledge gap, we mapped and analyzed HWCs from 1990 to 2022 across China. We comprehensively mapped the spatiotemporal dynamics of HWCs in ArcGIS with data sets stratified by county, year, and species; assessed the impact of PAs through propensity score matching; and analyzed the effects of habitat transformation with linear mixed models. As PA increased from 0 to 20,000km2, the likelihood of HWCs initially increased (50%) before declining (20%). Conversely, as the distance from a PA grew, the likelihood of HWC gradually decreased (0 beyond 65km). There was a temporal lag between the establishment of a PA and the occurrence of HWC. Habitat loss catalyzed HWCs, whereas decreased levels of habitat fragmentation sometimes initially caused a temporary increase in HWCs. In general, the distribution of PAs greatly affected HWC occurrence, and habitat loss and fragmentation were critical drivers of HWCs, both of which exhibited time-lagged effects. HWC has become more challenging to address as conservation initiatives have led to significant recovery of the habitats and populations of wild animals. Further measures to address the HWCs are needed to ensure the preservation of animal welfare while fostering the mutually beneficial coexistence of humans and animal species. Finally, our study provides an important starting point for informing future HWC research and conservation planning on a global scale.

Spatial-temporal patterns of human-wildlife conflicts under coupled impact of natural and anthropogenic factors in Mt. Gaoligong, western Yunnan, China

The study has been carried out in the North Gujarat region of Gujarat state, Western India which represents unique habitats from arid regions to dry deciduous forests with annual rainfall ranging from 25-125 cms. Humanwildlife conflicts are intensifying owing to increase in human population and destruction of wildlife habitats. In the present study we characterized and classif ied the conflicts, identif ied zones with acute conflicts and evaluated the economic loss to the local villagers due to such humanwildlife conflicts. Sampling methods mainly included village surveys for interviewing locals who are affected by wildlife damage. The information was overlaid on the existing digital land use data to identify landscape characteristics associated with wildlife occupancy in the region. The result depicts that 80% of total damage in seasonal crop is caused by wild ungulates. Wild animals like Blue bull, Wild boar and Porcupine are reported as a chief crop raider. The Leopard is the only big cat occurring in the region reported to cause human injury and livestock predation. Sloth bear attacks on human are very common in some part of the study area. Conflicts are more severe around unprotected forests while high intensity of conflicts was recorded on the fringes of the forests.

Anthropogenic activities cause habitat loss for wildlife, thus increasing human-wildlife conflicts globally. This study focused on highlighting factors that need to be explored when assessing human-wildlife conflicts for managerial actions. To identify critical factors influencing co-existence between humans and wildlife and the role these factors can play in supporting conservation of flora and fauna. A structured questionnaire was developed and administered to four communities around the two divisions of Cross-River National park to collect information demographic characteristics and series of tolerance construct statements to understand tolerance towards human-wildlife conflicts. The factors influencing tolerance in human-wildlife conflicts in Cross River National Park were highlighted using factor analysis on 335 households from communities living near the park. Tolerance in human-wildlife conflicts influences conservation and management in protected areas. The identified factors were a contribution to conservation, wealth & multiple livelihood sources, Compensation & Benefits, and community resilience. Furthermore, it was also discovered that carnivore conservation requires special attention for communities to provide support for conservation. Our results suggest that even though conservation is a central concept in human-wildlife conflict, other factors such as tolerance, the occupation of locals and the benefits to be derived play a critical role in ameliorating human-wildlife conflicts. Human-wildlife conflicts cannot be totally eliminated but having a clear understanding of the factors that play a major role in determining tolerance levels is a huge step towards peaceful coexistence and hence better management of the protected area

Human–wildlife conflict poses significant ecological and socio-economic challenges, particularly in rural communities where agriculture and livestock rearing form the backbone of livelihoods. Despite the growing importance of this issue, District Lakki Marwat remains an unexplored area of northwest Pakistan. This study aims to fill this gap by systematically assessing the status, economic impacts, and community perceptions of five wildlife species: wild boar (Sus scrofa), grey wolf (Canis lupus), golden jackal (Canis aureus), striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Using semi-structured surveys with 117 respondents, we analyzed species prevalence, perceived danger levels, crop damage patterns, and predation impacts on livestock and poultry. The findings revealed that wild boars were identified as the primary contributors to agricultural damage, with total annual crop losses surpassing the economic impacts attributed to the studied carnivores. On average, each surveyed household experienced an annual loss of PKR 4510.38. For the 39% of households reporting crop damage, the annual loss per reported household was PKR 11,727, which was higher than the average annual loss across all households, underscoring the severity of the impact on those specifically affected by the wild boar-related crop damage. Notably, community attitudes were most negative toward wild boars, a pattern driven by the economic burden of crop losses, challenging the conventional focus on carnivores as the primary conflict species. A Pearson’s X2 test confirmed strong associations between species and perceived danger levels, while regression analysis demonstrated an association between crop damage and negative attitudes. Traditional deterrents like thorn fences were found ineffective against wild boars. More advanced methods, including game-proof fencing, trenches, bio-fencing, crop rotation, audio and visual deterrents, taste and order repellents, and watchtowers combined with group vigilance, are recommended to reduce crop damage. Integrating these approaches with community-based education, habitat management, and government-supported compensation schemes can mitigate wild boar impacts. This study contributes new insights into multi-species HWC dynamics, demonstrating that community perceptions are primarily shaped by the economic impact of a species, regardless of whether it is a carnivore or an omnivore. The attitudes of local communities are driven by the financial losses incurred, rather than the species' behavior or ecological role. This study underscores the need for collaborative efforts to reduce human–wildlife conflict, foster coexistence, and ensure ecological balance in vulnerable rural areas.

Human-wildlife conflict has been one of the most trouble-causing issues in many areas of Nepal including Eastern Nepal. This study assessed the human-wildlife conflict status in Paschim Kusaha Village of Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (KTWR), Sunsari District, Nepal. Data were collected from 47 respondents of different households through questionnaire surveys and formal and informal interviews. Results revealed that the most destructive wild animals were wild elephants, wild boar, and wild water buffalo and the most raided crops were paddy (63.83 %), maize (19.15%), and potato (17.02%). Most of the encounters between humans and wildlife were recorded at night (after dusk and before dawn) (78.72%). Local people were suffering from damage of physical properties, human harassment or nuisance, and depredation of cropland due to wild animals. A total of 70% of respondents had a positive attitude towards conservation despite disturbing human mortality records (22 deaths in the last five years) from the reserve area and surrounding. Awareness of wildlife behavior together with conservation and easy access to compensation schemes were suggested to minimize conflicts in the area.

The high economic costs of human–wildlife conflicts (HWC) hinder long-term conservation successes, especially in developing countries. We investigated HWC by interviewing 498 respondents from 42 villages in Nowshera district, Pakistan. According to respondents, six species—the common leopard (Panthera pardus), grey wolf (Canis lupus), golden jackal (Canis aureus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), Indian porcupine (Hystrix indica), and wild boar (Sus scrofa)—were involved in livestock predation and crop-raiding. Livestock predation (N = 670) translated into a total annual economic loss of USD 48,490 across the 42 villages, with the highest economic loss of USD 57.1/household/year attributed to the golden jackal. Crop damage by wild boar and porcupine incurred a total annual economic loss of USD 18,000. Results further showed that livestock predation was highly affected by location, prey type, prey age, and herding practices, while cereals and vegetables were preferred crops for wild boar and Indian porcupine. The grey wolf was declared as the most dangerous carnivore, followed by the golden jackal and common leopard. Negative attitude about golden jackal and wild boar prevails among 90% of the respondents of the study area. We strongly assume that the abundance of apex predators can control the economic impacts of meso-carnivores and wild boar on the community’s livelihood. Keeping relatively smaller herds may reduce carnivore attacks and educating the populous and compensation can minimise negative perceptions of HWC. To reduce HWC in the study area, there should be an incessant and timely coordination between wildlife officials and the local community.

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is becoming a progressively pressing issue for conservation and society in India. Often, it’s misunderstood as just wildlife causing harm to humans and their property, without considering the impacts that humans have on wildlife as well. As human populations grow and habitats become more fragmented, incidents of HWC are on the rise in various regions. This review aimed to identify temporal trends, geographic hotspots, and the main taxa involved in HWC, and to assess research gaps. We screened 246 peer-reviewed articles using tools such as Web of Science, Google Scholar and Scopus, and analysed 155 relevant studies from 141 different journals. The findings reveal that Karnataka, Kerala, and West Bengal are the states with the most HWC research, with elephants, wild boars, and leopards being the species most often involved. The main types of conflict include crop damage, livestock loss, and human injuries or fatalities. Our spatial and time-based mapping indicates that interest in HWC has grown in recent years, although there was a noticeable decline during the COVID-19 pandemic. A bibliometric analysis highlights keywords such as "HWC," "conservation," and "compensation," showcasing the current research priorities. Despite the increase in studies, there’s still a significant lack of research from north-eastern and central Indian states, particularly regarding retaliatory killings of wildlife. This review emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary, community-focused, and policy-driven research to create sustainable strategies for coexistence. Empathetic, the socio-ecological dynamics are essential for reducing conflict and balancing conservation efforts with local livelihoods.