State, Economy, and City: A Reconstruction

1. The economic principle of spatial division of labour comprises two basic features, specialization in the performance of specific tasks and close co-operation by potentially independent, spatially separated subunits of a higher-level organizational system. Space-economic theory predicts large benefits from such a spatial division of labour if essential resources are heterogeneously distributed and if high-availability zones for these resources do not spatially coincide. In this paper, evidence is provided that a spatial division of labour may also occur in clonal plants growing in spatially heterogeneous environments. 2. Clonal fragments of the stoloniferous herb Trifolium repens L., consisting of two interconnected groups of ramets, were exposed to contrasting levels of light and water supply. Ramet groups specialized morphologically in the uptake of the locally most abundant resource and they exchanged both water and assimilates. This division of labour significantly increased the performance of the entire plant in terms of fitness-related traits such as biomass and atonal offspring production. 3. It is concluded that spatial division of labour may contribute to the apparent success of clonal plant species in many natural habitats by enabling them to efficiently exploit environmental patchiness. The implications of these results for the understanding of foraging strategies of clonal plants and the general notion of habitat heterogeneity in plant ecology are discussed.

During the advent of digital technology, the market for stock photography has undergone radical transformations that have disrupted incumbent businesses and produced new divisions of labor. Picture agencies have responded to this challenge with a veritable proliferation of inter-firm alliances. In the attempt to understand this network boom, this paper develops a theoretical link between the concept of regular equivalence and its capacity to detect intra-industry divisions of labor. Based on a network survey of picture agencies in Germany, a prespecified generalized blockmodel yields a valid representation of an increasing functional specialization of new value stages that translates into an extended social and spatial division of labor in ways that challenge a dualist theory of the division of creative labor.

Spatial Division of Labor

Spatial division of labor, specialization of green technology innovation process and urban coordinated green development: Evidence from China

Data on the establishment and growth of small firms in Norway between 1976 and 1985 are used to study changes in the spatial division of labour. New and expanding firms in rural areas are mainly found in labour-intensive manufacturing, construction and consumer services. In the large cities, and particularly in the capital region, a much larger part of the growth takes place within new, knowledge-intensive sectors. This new division of labour reflects important structural changes in industry, with growth in service activities and decline in manufacturing. Know-how, as a ‘new’ requirement of production, is regarded as the most important factor for the emerging spatial division of labour.

The emergence, from the 1960s on, of a new spatial division of labor – with the old task-based division of labor within a firm taking on a spatial dimension, and comparative advantage increasingly shaping patterns of specialization by function/process as well as by sector/product – reflected both new possibilities opened up by developments in management, control and communications technologies and intensified competitive pressures within (generally) mature industrial sectors. On an international scale this primarily affected manufacturing activities, and was driven essentially by labor cost factors. Within developed economies, however, it also affected a number of (mostly) office-based service activities, where the crucial cost factor more typically involved premises rather than labor, since these tended to occupy expensive space in central locations offering the face-to-face communication potential required for some at least of their functions. In these cases the new spatial divisions occurred within much more restricted territories, both because there were tighter constraints (on the kinds of labor deemed suitable and on the dispensability of face-to-face contact) and because there was much more local variation in the relevant cost factor. Even so, there were US examples from the 1980s of telecommunications links being used to effect substantial savings in typing/data entry costs by exploiting cheaper pools of English-speaking labor in offshore locations such as Ireland or the West Indies (Warf 1989). Since the end of the 1990s, however, service activities in advanced economies have taken initiatives to shift a much wider range of information-related functions to offshore locations in pursuit of labor cost savings, as they in their turn come to face more intense price competition. In this context, more of the jobs involve high levels of human capital – for which the core economies had been presumed to possess a comparative advantage – raising questions about how far the process could be extended, and whether a number of their advanced service activities, notably “wholesale” financial services, have also become vulnerable to “hollowing out”.KeywordsBusiness ProcessComparative AdvantageFinancial ServiceHedge FundHome BasisThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Regional planning in France : a tentative evaluation. — If an intense industrial decentralization has taken place in France in the last twenty years, parallel with the development of a policy of national development, it seems audacious to explain the one by the other. One may think that the industrial restructurations, the integration of firms, and the technical and social phenomena which have accompanied them (accentuation of the division of labour, down-grading of jobs connected with mass-production...) account more accurately for the new "spatial division of labour".

The article presents an analytical framework for studies of technological change under capitalist relations of production. Special attention is paid to theoretical and methodological questions concerning the relationship between capital accumulation and technological development on the one hand, and the resulting changes in the labour process, the locational patterns and the spatial division of labour on the other hand. This implies conceptual work, and attempts are made to obtain more precise definitions of important analytical concepts such as ‘technology’ and ‘spatial division of labour’.

This article examines how economic activity and market participation are distributed across space. Applying a nonparametric von Thünen model to Nepalese data, we uncover a strong spatial division of labour. Non-farm employment is concentrated in and around cities while agricultural wage employment dominates villages located further away. Vegetables are produced near urban centres; paddy and commercial crops are more important at intermediate distances. Isolated villages revert to self-subsistence. Findings are consistent with the von Thünen model of concentric specialisation, corrected to account for city size. Spatial division of labour is closely related to factor endowments and household characteristics, especially at the local level.

the authors examine how economic activity and market participation are distributed across space. Applying a nonparametric von Thunen model to Nepalese data, the authors uncover a strong spatial division of labor. Nonfarm employment is concentrated in and around cities, while agricultural wage employment dominates villages located further away. Vegetables are produced near urban centers. Paddy and commercial crops are more important at intermediate distances. Isolated villages revert to self-subsistence. The findings of the study are consistent with the von Thunen model of concentric specialization, corrected to account for city size. Spatial division of labor is closely related to factor endowments and household characteristics, especially at the local level.

This study attempts to analyse the migration flows from Turkey to Northern Cyprus since 1974 which are historically different in nature and have different significances in different periods. Out of the three migration waves that can be identified since 1974, the first and the third waves are the subjects of this study. The analysis includes integration/segregation processes of Turkish migrants in Northern Cypriot society and their position in the re-construction of economic, social and spatial division of labour which had started to disintegrate in 1963 and collapsed in 1974 after the division of the Island as two separate political geographies. This study argues that migrants were the main pillars of the re-construction of division of labour process in the Northern part of the Island and it tries to elaborate a migrant-biased perspective instead of looking through the strong strategic and political presumptions, which can easily conceal the social reality of being a migrant and their reality as a class in the society.

This paper argues that for the past two decades regional scientists have not been successful in anticipating structural changes in the spatial division of labor. A major reason has been the excessive emphasis placed on static analytic constructs based on city sizes and systems of cities. A more instructive approach would analyze the dynamic interrelations among the three functional levels through which changes in the division of labor operate, that is, workplaces, business organization, and spatial systems. The product cycle, the manufacturing process cycle, and a more broadly conceived view of regional production processes are considered in this context.

A study is made of industrialization and the transition in economic structure as it has affected a remote peripheral region of Finland with a predominantly resource‑based economy over the last twenty years or so. The empirical resultsare used to interpret and develop theory of regional development adequate for describing the transition of this peripheral region from an area dominated by primary‑sector production to one characterized by industry and the service sec­tor. The resource‑based peripheral region concerned is the province of Northern Karelia. A region‑level core‑periphery system is outlined in which the organization of the economy, the division of labour, performance potential and environmental relations are examined by regional and spatial analysis and resource analysis. A model is developed for evaluating the performance potential of an economy and proposing alternative paths of development. Development in a periphery is regulated by external impulses (demand, regional policy, etc.) together with the distinctive features imposed on the economy by its past history. This development can be explained by reference to rationaliza­tion in resource processing sectors, profitability difficulties, poor growth propen­sity and special characteristics of the division of labour and the adoption of new technology. The combined effect of these factors, termed here the periphery syn­drome, leads to differences in affluence and in general to regional differentia­tion in the economy. The syndrome is dynamic in nature. The principal problems following the economic transition are shifting away from rationalization in agricul­ture and towards the structure of industry itself. The resource periphery is be­coming an industrial periphery. The conclusions comprise a set of eight conceptual systems of factors which should be taken into account when studying economic transition and industriali­zation in peripheral regions. These concern development with respect to popula­tion, rationalization, regional policy, the spatial division of labour, spatial cost structures, demand, entrepreneurship and resource and environment factors and the influence of these on regional development in the periphery in question. The differences in development between the sectors of industry are of sig­nificance for regional development as a whole, and allowance should be made for these in the theory. Where theories of development in resource peripheries tend to represent outcomes of a number of external and internal factors and ones applying to individual sectors, the explanatory model evolved here comprises theo­retical concepts of a number of different types.

Today the service economy is evident in the developed countries. In particular, producer services are rapidly increasing their employment and their output. They influence “space”, and create a new spatial pattern of the urban system and the internal structure of the cities.This paper aims to review the studies on the geography of producer services in Europe and North America, especially in the UK and the USA. The author emphasizes the theoretical approaches. The main themes are:1) Export and economic base theory.2) Office location.3) Industrial linkages.4) Social and spatial divisions of labor.5) Structural changes.6) Regional uneven development.7) Urban systems.Before reviewing these themes, we must consider the economists' attitude to service industries. Their attitude is generally negative toward service industries, and does not properly evaluate the relationship between manufacturing and service industries. Today, this relationship has begun to be modified and regarded as interdependent because producer services influence the performance of manufacturing.J. N. Marshall and P. W. Daniels are eagerly studying producer services, but the approach of Marshall is different from that of Daniels, because Marshall's approach stems from“industrial linkages”, while Daniels' comes from“office location”. They have studied each theme and recognized producer services as important. Marshall stresses the linkage between manufacturing and producer services, and Daniels emphasizes the offices which are occupied by producer services.The findings of the review are as follows:1) In general, economic geographers have not regarded services as a“basic industry” until now because consumer services were prominent. But recently some geographers are acknowledging the interregional trade in producer services and look on it as an important economic base for all metropolitan areas.2) The location of producer services is associated with office location, because services are traded by means of offices. For this reason, some geographers argue that the location of producer services influences office location especially in the urban core region.3) Producer services are closely related to manufacturing or other industries. This relationship is starting to be emphasized these days. Furthermore, recent works stress that producer services are not necessarily dependent on manufacturing, and the linkages between them are interdependent.4) As producer services grow, their functions are differentiating. And it is now pointed out that spatial division of labor has emerged here as well as in manufacturing. But according to the recent literature, the pattern of spatial division of labor of producer services is little different from that of manufacturing, because the“peripheral”function of producer services includes also high-order activities.5) Recently, some researchers have explained the prominence of producer services in the context of“structural changes”. This is the reason why producer services growth is associated with flexible production systems or corporate restructuring which are derived from structural changes in the economy.6) The discussion about spatial division of labor in producer services has developed into an interest in regional uneven development. Some geographers attribute this fact to the uneven distribution of producer service employment and facilities, and they argue that the core area benefits from much employment and high-order functions of the producer service, while the peripheral area is disadvantaged by the poor performance of producer service activities.7) The relationship between producer services and urban systems is now considered very important because producer services create a new hierarchical pattern.

This paper is an overview of an industrial restructuring and spatial division of labor in the Seoul metropolitan region, with a focus on the role of the Korean government, corporate strategy, and regional characteristics in controlling labor and capital. The spatial division of labor that appeared in the 1970s was related mainly to the Korean government's promotion of the rise of large enterprises to institutionalize heavy and chemical industrial development. Since the 1980s, in addition to the role of the state, corporate strategy and regional characteristics have been regarded as important factors for understanding the undergoing industrial restructuring. Concentration and development of high-tech industries in the Seoul metropolitan region during the 1980s have progressed with evolving intensified spatial division of labor beyond the spatial separation of headquarters and production units. The evolution of intensified spatial division of labor is the result of corporate strategy which regionally separates technical workers from production workers on the one hand, and corporate strategy in utilizing regional characteristics from the government's decentralization policy on the other hand.