State Cult in Early China and Rome

In contemporary society, digital media has become an integral part of daily life that shapes how people interact with the world around them. This phenomenon has also influenced religious activities and practices. Studies on digital religion and religious practices among digital natives in the Western world have indicated that traditional religious practices are on the decline. Instead, more accessible and flexible forms of religious activities and beliefs are emerging. Given this context, it is important to investigate whether similar trends are occurring in Korea. This study aims to explore the religious activities and expressions of Korean individuals in the online environment. Specifically, the study focuses on four main areas: ① the online religious activities of established religions such as Protestantism, Buddhism, and Catholicism; ② the online religious activities related to divination belief systems such as the Four Pillars of Destiny (四柱 saju) and Tarot; ③ online holy sites and wish comments or chats; and ④ popular religious neologisms such as jileumshin (지름神 a god with the power to justify consumption) and gatsaeng (갓[God]生 one’s best life). Through this review, it can be ascertained that religious ideas and practices are restricted by the attributes of digital media. This implies that the emergence of simplistic forms of religious ideas and activities is associated with the features of digital media and the consumption of digital content.

Objective: To examine the prevalence of religious beliefs and practices in hospitalized patients with congestive heart failure (CHF) or chronic pulmonary disease (CPD), and determine relationships with physical and mental health. Methods: Subjects were a consecutive sample of 196 patients age 55 or over admitted to Duke University Medical Center with a diagnosis of CHF or CPD. Patients underwent a 60–90 minute interview and physical exam to assess physical health, social support, mental health, religious activities and attitudes (attendance, prayer and scripture study, intrinsic religiosity). Results: Religious practices were widespread; 98% had a religious affiliation; 48% reported attending religious services weekly or more; 70% reported praying or reading religious scriptures at least daily; and over 85% consistently indicated intrinsic religious beliefs and attitudes. Religious activities and attitudes were inversely related to measures of physical illness severity and functional disability, and were less common among patients with prior psychiatric problems, hospitalizations for depression, drinking problems, and those currently taking psychotropic drugs. Religious activities (especially religious attendance) were associated with greater social support, but were only weakly related to less depression. Conclusions: Religious beliefs and activities are common among patients with CHF and CPD, are associated with less severe illness and functional disability, fewer prior psychiatric problems, and less psychotropic drug use. Treatment implications are discussed.

BackgroundUganda has low levels of death registration, estimated at two per cent by the National Identification and Registration Authority (NIRA). There are 56 tribes and over 5 religious denominations with so many social norms and religious practices that could have contributed to low death registration in Uganda. Previous studies on the factors affecting death registration have not assessed the contribution of social norms and religious practices toward low death registration in developing countries.MethodsA qualitative study design was adopted to examine the contribution of social norms and religious practices toward low death registration in the 3 Health and Demographic Surveillance systems (HDSS) sites of Uganda. The methods of data collection included: focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and a document review of the death registration booklet. 6 FGDs, 2 from each HDSS site were conducted comprising 1 female FGD of 10 participants and 1 male FGD of 10 participants. In addition, 26 key informant interviews were conducted with the district leaders, local council leaders, health care workers, cultural leaders, elderly, HDSS scouts and religious leaders in the 3 HDSS sites.ResultsIn the 4 sub-counties and 1 town council where the study was conducted, only 32 deaths were registered with NIRA, the Civil Registration authority in Uganda for the entire year from 1st January to 31st December 2020. The study shows that social norms and religious practices have contributed to the low death registration in the 3 HDSS sites in Uganda. Social norms and religious practices either hinder or discourage death registration initiatives by the government of Uganda. It was found out that burials that take place on the same day of death discourage death registration. Cultural taboo to announcing the death of infants, neonates, twins and suicides in the community hinder death registration. The burying of a woman at her parent's house after bride price payment default by the family of a husband discourages death registration. The religious institutions have their own set of rules, practices, and norms, which in most cases discourage death registration. For example, religious leaders refuse to lead funeral prayers for non-active members in religious activities. Results also showed that mixed religions in families bring about conflicts that undermine death registration. Lastly, results showed that traditionalists do not seek medical treatment in hospitals and this hinders death registration at the health facilities.ConclusionThe study shows that death registration is very low in the 3 HDSS sites in Uganda and that social norms and religious practices contribute greatly to the low death registration. To overcome the negative effects of social norms and religious practices, a social behaviour campaign is proposed. In addition, community dialogue should be conducted to identify all negative social norms and religious practices, how they are perpetuated, their effects, and how they can be renegotiated or eliminated to bring about high death registration in the 3 HDSS sites of Uganda. Lastly, there is a need for partnerships with cultural and religious leaders to sensitize community members on the effect of social norms and religious practices on low death registration in the 3 HDSS sites in Uganda.

This study assessed the Contributions of Religious Activities on Students` Academic Performance in the Higher Institutions of Mbeya City. The specific objectives of this study were: To identify the kind of religious activities available at Catholic University of Mbeya (CUoM), to examine the contribution of religious activities on students` academic performance at CUoM as well and to find out the strategies for enhancing religious activities to enhance students` academic performance at CUoM. The study used a Convergent parallel design in the investigation. Purposive sampling and the simple random sampling technique was applied to get the respondents to participate in the study. The target population comprised third-year students, instructors and religious leaders of CUoM. In order to get data from the respondents, the researcher used questionnaires for students and instructors and an interview guide for religious leaders. Quantitative data was analysed in the form of frequency and percentages and presented in tables with the help of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 21. Qualitative data was analysed through building themes, narration and direct quotations from respondents. The findings revealed that the religious activities done at CUoM are prayer groups, religious studies courses, religious clubs, religious counselling services, seminars, visiting the needy people, religious teachings, also religious mentorship programs. Also, the findings revealed that among the contributions of religious activities at CUoM are to influence good behaviour in Students, influence studying hard, encourage good relationships among Students, enhance guidance and counselling to Students, create fear of God in Students, as well as motivate Students to reach their dreams. Again, the findings on the strategies for enhancing religious activities on students’ academic performance at CUoM include employing more religious teachers, creating a religious timetable at the university, allocating rooms for religious activities, improving good relationships between the university and religious leaders, as well, improving a good environment for implementing the religious activities and motivating irreligious students to engage in religious activities. The study concluded that the presence of religious activities in universities increases Students' academic performance because they encourage students to study hard, provide guidance and counselling to Students, instil fear of God in Students and motivate Students to reach their dreams. Thus, government and other education stakeholders should work on this by employing more religious teachers and ensuring a good environment for religious activities, like the presence of a hall for religious activities. The researcher recommended that the religious institutions should be given enough opportunities for providing religious education in the university, good relationships between universities and religious institutions, like churches, should be maintained, and there should be connectivity between religious leaders and the university’s administration so as to support the program of conducting religious activities.

Religion played a pivotal role in shaping the political and cultural landscape of early China, particularly through the practice of relocating capitals (遷都). The relocation of capitals is an outstanding theme in early Chinese historiography, setting it apart from many other world traditions. In particular, this practice contrasts sharply with the early Mediterranean context, where the city of Rome transitioned from a modest city-state to a world empire and was celebrated as the “eternal city.” By contrast, early Chinese capitals were deliberately transient, their impermanence rooted in strong religious sentiments and pragmatic considerations. Religious and ideological justifications were central to these relocations. The relocation was not merely a logistical or political exercise; it was imbued with symbolic meaning that reinforced the ruler’s legitimacy and divine mandate. Equally important was the way rulers communicated these decisions to the populace. The ability to garner mass support for such monumental undertakings reveals the intricate relationship between political authority and religious practice in early China. These critical moments of migration offer profound insights into the evolving religious landscape of early China, shedding light on how religion shaped early governance and public persuasion. “Capital relocation” served as a means to rearticulate belief, reaffirm the centrality of worship, and restore faith in the ruling order. Drawing on recent archeological discoveries and updated textual and inscriptional scholarship related to the events of Pan Geng and the Zhou relocation to Luoyi, this article re-examines the motif of “capital relocation” as both a historical and historiographical phenomenon unique to early China.

Reviewed by: Ancestral Memory in Early China Constance A. Cook Ancestral Memory in Early China by K. E. Brashier. Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2011. Pp. xii + 470. $39.95. K. E. Brashier begins his study of ancestral memory with a wry regret that this book was due out ten years ago. No matter: the wait was worthwhile. This complex and fascinating tome is packed with detailed information organized into five thematic chapters, or “parts,” with a total of thirty-one “sections” (specific case studies). The topics discussed are so intertwined, with colorful threads drawn and re-spun from previous chapters, that the reader can be overwhelmed, wondering if each “part” should not have been separated into an independent book.1 Fortunately, after a lengthy introduction, Brashier deftly guides the reader from one part to the next. The result is that by the time the reader reaches the end of Part 5, the rhetorical flourish that constitutes the conclusion is enough. This is an impressive and entertaining work. Despite his erudition, Brashier speaks directly to the reader, often by playfully using metaphors from modern life to explain his theoretical approaches. The book begins with an examination of the political economy of Han mortuary rules for ancestral memory and ends with an exploration of the cognitive aspect of preserving ancestral memory as an individual experience in what he calls the “bubble of ritual-time and altar-space.” Brashier freely speculates, drawing connections between details of Han religious practice accessible only to a scholar who is deeply engrossed in every type of material and literary resource reflective of the Han period (206 b.c.e.–220 c.e.). Ancestral Memory in Early China reflects over a decade of work, and its structure brings to mind one of the many metaphors Brashier uses to describe the Han religious experience, such as the “Han Tree of Knowledge,” in which the trunk represents the shared understanding of ancestral cults inherited from the earlier Zhou period and the branches connote singular practices particular to certain times and places. [End Page 392] Brashier carefully acknowledges the limits of his sources for interpreting the “trunk” and “branches” of Han practice, accepting that all were recorded or edited by classicists (Confucians or Ru 儒) with their own interpretive agendas. He recognizes that the majority of images of Zhou belief preserved in ritual texts were products of Han-period imagination. Even so, he is forced to make generalizations, declaiming the filter of the Eastern Zhou (770–221 b.c.e.) interpretations as a corruption of a purer Zhou practice (Western Zhou, 1046–771 b.c.e.). Inspired by Brashier’s own analysis of Han religion, this reader would argue that there was likewise no pure Zhou practice and that the idea of defining religious practices by historical eras was a late Warring States–early Han effort to identify a tradition in the face of multiple competing regional influences. In Part 1, Brashier wisely describes the so-called “Zhou” practice defined in the Liji (Ritual records) as the “imaginary yardstick for ritual performance.” In Part 2, he tests these idealized ritual rules against thirteen case studies drawn primarily from Han historical records. He notes that the Han officials who interpreted ritual for the emperors generally edited the rules for their own benefit, choosing records that supported one system of remembering imperial ancestors over another depending on which branch lineage was in power. With regard to the individual practice of ancestor worship, the system applied affected which ancestors were remembered through regular sacrifices. In Part 3, the heart of his book, Brashier discusses how descendants formed their images of the ancestral spirit and suggests that their relationships to the images involved balancing their expressions of “sincerity” to the spirits against both their own doubts and popular debates over the very existence of spirits.2 The mental effort involved in expressing sincerity to a spirit is the primary subject of Part 4. He explains these acts of mentation and performative thinking by drawing on literary metaphors mostly preserved in poetry. These metaphors reflect a cosmos that was composed of qi 氣 (which Brashier defines as “atmospheric vapors” or “bodily energies and breaths”) and flowed according...

WOLFGANG OMMERBORN, Zwischen Sakralem und Säkularem: Bedeutung und Entwicklung religiöser Begriffe und Praktiken in China bis zur Han-Zeit (206 v.u.Z.-220). edition cathay, vol. 61. Bochum, Freiburg: projektverlag, 2012. 397 pp. e24.50 (pb). ISBN 978-3-89733-268-3 The author of the monograph under review has published a number of works on the history of Confucian thought. With the present volume, he has set himself a greater task. The book, so the title suggests, traces the development of religious terms and practices from neolithic times to the Han period. The emphasis lies in fact on terms, less on practices, and much space is given to evidence from canonical texts and classical philosophical writings of the Warring States period. Ommerborn begins his book with an exposition of the formation of the modern Chinese term for religion, zongjiao 宗教, which emerged in the nineteenth century under Japanese influence. He points out distinctions between jiao with its prior religious connotations and the terms xue 學 and jia 家, which both tended to be used in intellectual contexts without specific religious overtones. This is followed by a brief overview of potential traces of neolithic religious beliefs and practices with reference to a few pieces of archaeological evidence and a larger number of transmitted texts dating from much later periods. These two introductory sections set the stage for the main body of the study, which falls into three parts: one is devoted to the Shang, the next to the Western and Eastern Zhou, and finally the Han. The thematic focus shifts with the period under investigation. The discussion of Shang religion centers on shamanism, ancestral cults, and the worship of di 帝, referring extensively to a monograph by Chang Tsung-tung (Zhang Congdong 張聰東).23 The concepts of Heaven (tian 天) and the Heavenly mandate (tianming 天命) are the dominant themes of the chapters on the Western Zhou, whose evidentiary basis largely consists of passages from the Songs (Shijing 詩經) and Documents (Shangshu 尚書). The Eastern Zhou chapters engage with a greater variety of themes. In addition to Heaven, the discussion extends to such terms as “virtue / auratic power” (de 德), “ritual / etiquette” (li 禮), and “mandate / fate” (ming 命). The main sources for this part are some of the well-known philosophical works of the time such as Lunyu 論語, Mengzi 孟子, Xunzi 荀子, and Mozi 墨子. The final part discusses Han state cults and Confucian thought as expressed mainly in the works of Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒 (179? 2104? BCE), with his attempt to integrate the moral and political order of the human realm into comprehensive cosmological schemes. On the whole, Ommerborn’s work attests to his familiarity with the received literature and his close attention to detail. The innumerable references that adorn the pages of this book are a testimony to the author’s meticulous scholarship and scope of learning. It is, therefore, hoped that the following remarks, offered in a spirit of constructive criticism, will be accepted as such. 23 Tsung-tung Chang, Der Kult der Shang-Dynastie im Spiegel der Orakelinschriften: Eine paläographische Studie zur Religion im archaischen China (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1970). BOOK REVIEWS 113 The concept of religion remains vague throughout. Despite its intrinsic interest, the emergence of zongjiao as one among many newly coined terms in a period of both intense intellectual ferment and existentially threatening upheaval fails to address the wide range of beliefs and practices, attitudes, and institutions that can be covered by “religion.”24 To set the stage for the following study of concepts, rather than tracing the history of this term, it would seem more fruitful at least to hint at the multifarious manifestations of religious activity in early China.25 The strong emphasis on Eastern Zhou philosophers and their debates on a number of religiously colored notions imposes an intellectualizing perspective on this study. At the same time, many facets of ancient Chinese life that are arguably of religious significance by dint of their relationship with the numinous or supernatural fall outside the scope of the present volume. One may think, for instance, of such sources as hemerological texts and tomb contracts and the aspects of religious life they elucidate. The absence of such sources is symptomatic of another problem. Despite an unprecedented...

ABSTRACTThis qualitative study aims to explore the impact of religious beliefs in terms of religiosity, including (1) religious background, (2) religious practices and (3) participation in religious activities, on the development of spiritual well-being of Chinese students. Thereafter, this research further discussed how and what religiosity has contributed to the development of the university students’ spiritual well-being.27 individual in-depth interviews with university students were conducted. Findings contribute to the exploration of how the spiritual well-being of students could be influenced by their religious beliefs. Their religious doctrines, activities and practices may likewise be integrated in their daily lives. Moreover, religious doctrines, participation in religious activities and prayers or meditation positively contribute to the development of the university students’ spiritual well-being in specific domains (i.e., personal, communal, environmental and transcendental). Happiness, love, harmony, and devotion are affirmed as possible reasons and effects from their religious beliefs in the specific domains.

Previous research found declines in Americans’ religious affiliation but few changes in religious beliefs and practices. By 2014, however, markedly fewer Americans participated in religious activities or embraced religious beliefs, with especially striking declines between 2006 and 2014 and among 18- to 29-year-olds in data from the nationally representative General Social Survey ( N = 58,893, 1972-2014). In recent years, fewer Americans prayed, believed in God, took the Bible literally, attended religious services, identified as religious, affiliated with a religion, or had confidence in religious institutions. Only slightly more identified as spiritual since 1998, and then only those above age 30. Nearly a third of Millennials were secular not merely in religious affiliation but also in belief in God, religiosity, and religious service attendance, many more than Boomers and Generation X’ers at the same age. Eight times more 18- to 29-year-olds never prayed in 2014 versus the early 1980s. However, Americans have become slightly more likely to believe in an afterlife. In hierarchical linear modeling analyses, the decline in religious commitment was primarily due to time period rather than generation/birth cohort, with the decline in public religious practice larger ( d = −.50) and beginning sooner (early 1990s) than the smaller ( d = −.18) decline in private religious practice and belief (primarily after 2006). Differences in religious commitment due to gender, race, education, and region grew larger, suggesting a more religiously polarized nation.

The article analyzes the transformation of forms of religious communication against the background of the spread of SARS-CoV-2, the virus, that is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. Thanks to the advanced opportunities offered by the virtual space, various religious organizations and individual leaders have the opportunity to acquaint all users with their religious doctrines. But if in ordinary times the virtual religious space often functioned as an "addition" to the real religious space, then in the context of the coronavirus pandemic, it became almost the main channel for broadcasting religious teachings and ideas. In this regard, the capabilities of the virtual environment made it possible to search and experiment. For some people this can lead to a deeper understanding of their religious traditions and practices, while for others it can open up completely new ways of worshiping God, generating a variety of new ideas and trends. The closure of prayer facilities during the coronavirus pandemic has forced most religious institutions around the world to communicate with their followers online, and most of the self-isolated believers have also turned to virtual space in order not to interrupt their religious practices. By itself, virtual religious activity is not a new phenomenon, but in a crisis situation it has become an adequate substitute for real religious activity, making it possible to maintain the epidemiological situation and curb the outflow of the flock, adjusting their religious rituals to the new conditions. On the example of some religious institutions operating on the territory of Russia, it was revealed that during the period of restrictive measures in the country, some forms of religion have undergone significant changes and accelerated digitalization.

Community religious activities are religious efforts or activities that include the process of developing diri, the soul and the ability of a person to produce moral andhigh-use output. The purpose of this study is to describe empirical facts about the concern of rw 01 purabaya village youth in participating in religious activities, their religious practice, andthe relationship of antaraboth variables. To measure the problem,his first variablesare participation, attention and contribution. While the second variable considers the indicators oftheir religious practice, namely the relationship with God, man and alam. Penelitian iniuses descriptive methods through observation, interview and questionnaire. While the data processing technique is carried out based on statistical analysis, namely correlation tests. From the results of data processing, rw 01 purabaya village has a high concern for religious activities in the community with a value of 4.1 and their religious practice which reaches a value of 4.0. Therefore, thereis asignificant relationship between rw 01 youth's concern for religious activities in the community and their religious practice. The relationship is intended with the value of the co-relation coefficientof0.73 which inthecategorywill have a high correlation becauseit is at intervals of 0.70 - 0.90. Meanwhile, the magnitude of the influence of adolescent concern for religious activities in the community to their religious practice by 31% and there are still 69% more influenced by other factors.

Scent and synaesthesia: The medical use of spice bags in early China

Work on deities and the extrahuman has been relatively sparse in studies on religion in Early China, tending to only incorporate the topic in so much as it matters to other discussions. This paints a picture of religious activity in which the extrahuman is at best passively involved and at worst simply not present. This article illustrates that such understandings are far from accurate and that deities are actually a very common and complex element of the religious practices and activities displayed in pre-Qin (pre-221 BCE) writings by looking at Lesser Deities, specifically shen 神, in the Zuozhuan 左傳 and Guoyu 國語, two texts that display a vast swathe of information of this period. It shows that these texts depict these Lesser Deities in complex ways, constructing identities for them as active agents in socio-political roles with prescribed duties and responsibilities in the religious systems espoused by these texts.

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic has had global impacts on social interactions and religious activities, leading to a complex relationship between religion and public health policies. This article reviews impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on religious activities and beliefs in relation to the spread of the virus, as well as the potential of religious leaders and faith communities in mitigating the impact of the pandemic through public health measures and community engagement.MethodsA literature review was conducted using PubMed and Google Scholar, with search terms including “religion,” “COVID-19,” “pandemic,” “coronavirus,” and “spirituality.” We included English articles published between January 2020 and September 2022, focusing on intersection of religion and COVID-19.ResultsWe identified two main themes emerging, with the selected 32 studies divided in 15 studies focused on the relationship between religious practices, beliefs, and the spread of COVID-19, while 17 studies explored the role of religious leaders and faith communities in coping with and mitigating the impact of COVID-19. Religious activities were found to correlate with virus spread, particularly in early days of the pandemic. The relationship between religiosity and adherence to government guidelines was mixed, with some studies suggesting increased religiosity contributed to misconceptions about the virus and resistance to restrictions. Religious beliefs were also associated with vaccine hesitancy, particularly conservative religious beliefs. On the other hand, religious leaders and communities played a crucial role in adapting to COVID-19 measures, maintaining a sense of belonging, fostering emotional resilience, and upholding compliance with public health measures. The importance of collaboration between religious leaders, institutions, and public health officials in addressing the pandemic was emphasized.ConclusionsThis review highlights the essential role of religious leaders, faith-based organizations, and faith communities in promoting education, preparedness, and response efforts during the COVID-19 pandemic. Engaging with religious leaders and communities can improve pandemic control and prevention efforts. Collaboration between religious leaders, governments, and healthcare professionals is necessary to combat vaccine hesitancy and ensure successful COVID-19 vaccination campaigns. The insights from this review can guide future research, policy development, and public health interventions to minimize the impact of the pandemic and improve outcomes for individuals and communities affected.

For modern people, ghost stories are no more than thrilling entertainment. For those living in antiquity, ghosts were far more serious beings, as they could affect the life and death of people and cause endless fear and anxiety. How did ancient societies imagine what ghosts looked like, what they could do, and how people could deal with them? From the vantage point of modernity, what can we learn about an obscure, but no less important aspect of an ancient culture? In this volume, Mu-chou Poo explores the ghosts of ancient China, the ideas that they nurtured, and their role in its culture. His study provides fascinating insights into the interaction between the idea of ghosts and religious activities, literary imagination, and social life devoted to them. Comparing Chinese ghosts with those of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome, Poo also offers a wider perspective on the role of ghosts in human history.