Squirrel reservoirs of monkeypox virus are sister species separated by the Sanaga River (Cameroon), as are the two main viral clades.

First two cases of Monkeypox virus infection in travellers returned from UAE to India, July 2022

Monkeypox lineages amid the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic: A global public health concern – Correspondence

Monkeypox: Considerations as a New Pandemic Looms

Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is endemic within Africa where it sporadically is reported to cause outbreaks of human disease. In 2003, an outbreak of human MPXV occurred in the US after the importation of infected African rodents. Since the eradication of smallpox (caused by an orthopoxvirus (OPXV) related to MPXV) and cessation of routine smallpox vaccination (with the live OPXV vaccinia), there is an increasing population of people susceptible to OPXV diseases. Previous studies have shown that the prairie dog MPXV model is a functional animal model for the study of systemic human OPXV illness. Studies with this model have demonstrated that infected animals are able to transmit the virus to naive animals through multiple routes of exposure causing subsequent infection, but were not able to prove that infected animals could transmit the virus exclusively via the respiratory route. Herein we used the model system to evaluate the hypothesis that the Congo Basin clade of MPXV is more easily transmitted, via respiratory route, than the West African clade. Using a small number of test animals, we show that transmission of viruses from each of the MPXV clade was minimal via respiratory transmission. However, transmissibility of the Congo Basin clade was slightly greater than West African MXPV clade (16.7% and 0% respectively). Based on these findings, respiratory transmission appears to be less efficient than those of previous studies assessing contact as a mechanism of transmission within the prairie dog MPXV animal model.

New nomenclature for mpox (monkeypox) and monkeypox virus clades

Monkeypox (MPX) is a zoonotic disease endemic in Central and West Africa and is caused by Monkeypox virus (MPXV), the most virulent Orthopoxvirus affecting humans since the eradication of Variola virus (VARV). Many aspects of the MPXV transmission cycle, including the natural host of the virus, remain unknown. African rope squirrels (Funisciurus spp.) are considered potential reservoirs of MPXV, as serosurveillance data in Central Africa has confirmed the circulation of the virus in these rodent species [1,2]. In order to understand the tissue tropism and clinical signs associated with infection with MPXV in these species, wild-caught rope squirrels were experimentally infected via intranasal and intradermal exposure with a recombinant MPXV strain from Central Africa engineered to express the luciferase gene. After infection, we monitored viral replication and shedding via in vivo bioluminescent imaging, viral culture and real time PCR. MPXV infection in African rope squirrels caused mortality and moderate to severe morbidity, with clinical signs including pox lesions in the skin, eyes, mouth and nose, dyspnea, and profuse nasal discharge. Both intranasal and intradermal exposures induced high levels of viremia, fast systemic spread, and long periods of viral shedding. Shedding and luminescence peaked at day 6 post infection and was still detectable after 15 days. Interestingly, one sentinel animal, housed in the same room but in a separate cage, also developed severe MPX disease and was euthanized. This study indicates that MPXV causes significant pathology in African rope squirrels and infected rope squirrels shed large quantities of virus, supporting their role as a potential source of MPXV transmission to humans and other animals in endemic MPX regions.

Phylogenomic characterization of the 2022 outbreak of monkeypox virus—The importance of sustained genetic surveillance

Anti-Monkeypox Infection Approaches: From Prevention to Therapeutic Lines.

Monkeypox otherwise known as Mpox is a zoonotic disease caused by monkeypox virus which belongs to the genus Orthopox virus of the family Poxviridae; a large and diverse family of enveloped double stranded DNA viruses that replicate in the cytoplasm of infected cells. First discovered in 1958 with confirmed case first described in 1970, Monkeypox remains a reoccurrence especially in West African countries such as Nigeria. It occurs primarily in tropical rainforest areas of central and West Africa and is occasionally exported to other regions. There are two distinct genetic clades of the monkeypox virus: the central African (Congo Basin) clade and the West African clade with the earlier historically causing more severe disease and was thought to be more transmissible. In recent times, the case fatality ratio has been around 3–6%. Mpox is transmitted to humans through close contact with an infected person or animal, or with material contaminated with the virus. Clinical presentation resembles that of smallpox, a related orthopoxvirus infection which was declared eradicated worldwide in 1980. Mpox typically presents clinically with fever, rash and swollen lymph nodes and may lead to a range of medical complications. The gold standard method of diagnosis is by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method with others including viral culture, antibody testing and electron microscopy. This review x-rays the pathogenesis, risk factors, clinical presentations, associated complications, laboratory diagnosis, prevention and management of Mpox highlighting the need for utilization of an integrated approach that include immunization, antiviral treatments, and public health policies tailored to high-risk populations in combatting the disease. The need for training and retraining of Laboratory Scientists and personnels to acquire improved diagnostic skills desired in order to effectively control and reduce the impact of Mpox is highly needed.

BackgroundOutbreaks of monkeypox have been ongoing in non-endemic countries since May 2022. A thorough assessment of its global zoonotic niche and potential transmission risk is lacking.MethodsWe established an integrated database on global monkeypox virus (MPXV) occurrence during 1958 − 2022. Phylogenetic analysis was performed to examine the evolution of MPXV and effective reproductive number (Rt) was estimated over time to examine the dynamic of MPXV transmissibility. The potential ecological drivers of zoonotic transmission and inter-regional transmission risks of MPXV were examined.ResultsAs of 24 July 2022, a total of 49 432 human patients with MPXV infections have been reported in 78 countries. Based on 525 whole genome sequences, two main clades of MPXV were formed, of which Congo Basin clade has a higher transmissibility than West African clade before the 2022-monkeypox, estimated by the overall Rt (0.81 vs. 0.56), and the latter significantly increased in the recent decade. Rt of 2022-monkeypox varied from 1.14 to 4.24 among the 15 continuously epidemic countries outside Africa, with the top three as Peru (4.24, 95% CI: 2.89–6.71), Brazil (3.45, 95% CI: 1.62–7.00) and the United States (2.44, 95% CI: 1.62–3.60). The zoonotic niche of MPXV was associated with the distributions of Graphiurus lorraineus and Graphiurus crassicaudatus, the richness of Rodentia, and four ecoclimatic indicators. Besides endemic areas in Africa, more areas of South America, the Caribbean States, and Southeast and South Asia are ecologically suitable for the occurrence of MPXV once the virus has invaded. Most of Western Europe has a high-imported risk of monkeypox from Western Africa, whereas France and the United Kingdom have a potential imported risk of Congo Basin clade MPXV from Central Africa. Eleven of the top 15 countries with a high risk of MPXV importation from the main countries of 2022-monkeypox outbreaks are located at Europe with the highest risk in Italy, Ireland and Poland.ConclusionsThe suitable ecological niche for MPXV is not limited to Africa, and the transmissibility of MPXV was significantly increased during the 2022-monkeypox outbreaks. The imported risk is higher in Europe, both from endemic areas and currently epidemic countries. Future surveillance and targeted intervention programs are needed in its high-risk areas informed by updated prediction.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12992-023-00959-0.

Monkeypox (MPX) is a re-emerging zoonotic disease caused by the MPX virus (MPXV), a member of the orthopoxvirus genus of the poxviridae family. Before 2022, local transmission of MPX was essentially limited to the rainforest regions of Central and West Africa where the disease is known to be endemic1. The MPXV is a large DNA virus that is very stable and more efficient than many RNA viruses at detecting and repairing mutations. This makes the virus less prone to higher transmissibility unlike RNA viruses such as SARS-CoV-22. Prior to the 2022 outbreak, two distinct clades of the MPXV were recognized: the Congo Basin (Central African) and the West African clades, otherwise known as Clades I and II in the newly proposed nomenclature. The Congo Basin clade is associated with a higher transmission rate and higher case fatality rate (CFR) of about 11% compared to the West African clade with an estimated CFR of 1%2. The first case of MPX in the ongoing 2022 epidemic among non-endemic countries was reported in the United Kingdom (UK) by the UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA) on 7 May 2022, in a returning traveler from Nigeria. Subsequent cases discovered one week later in London were unrelated to the index case and had no travel links to endemic regions in Africa3. Since then, the World Health Organization (WHO) has reported more than 64,300 cases outside Africa in over 90 countries across Europe, the Americas and the West Pacific Regions4. On 23 July 2022, the WHO declared MPX a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). A newly discovered Clade IIb among the circulating strains of MPXV in non-endemic countries has been reported to have similarities with the West African clade but with higher transmissibility1. The WHO projects detection of more cases as surveillance is enhanced to involve more non-endemic countries4. This is surprisingly occurring at a time several countries are lifting COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns with increased international travels.

The rodent genus Praomys is widely distributed in the African tropics. The species are cryptic, rendering the species taxonomy unclear. There are differences of opinion concerning the specific status of Praomys misonnei and Praomys tullbergi, and their geographical distribution. We sequenced the cytochrome b and/or the 16S gene of 221 specimens from 12 countries in order to evaluate the genetic variability within these two species, and to precisely determine their geographical distribution. Morphological and morphometrical analyses on the sequenced specimens were also performed to find criteria useful for the identification of museum specimens. Our results confirm that P. misonnei and P. tullbergi are two valid species that can be separated by molecular data. However, no single discrete morphological character or simple metric measurement can be used to discriminate them. The percentage of misclassified individuals in multivariate discriminant analysis is relatively high (10%). The two species have allopatric distributions: P. tullbergi occurs in West Africa, from eastern Guinea to western Ghana, and P. misonnei is widely distributed from eastern Ghana to western Kenya. Within P. misonnei we identified three or four major geographical clades: a West Central African clade, an East African clade, a Nigerian clade, and a possible West African clade. Within P. misonnei, high geographical morphometrical variability was also identified. The role of both rivers and Pleistocene forest refugia in promoting speciation within the genus Praomys is discussed.

Until the beginning of 2022, human monkeypox was not a well-known disease among the general population. Sporadic cases of monkeypox occurred mainly in Central Africa and West Africa, where the virus is endemic. However, since May, 2022, cases of monkeypox have been confirmed outside of Central Africa and West Africa and the outbreak has been increasing at an alarming rate after the first case was confirmed in the UK on May 6th. The disease has also been spreading throughout other regions, such as Africa, the Americas, Eastern Mediterranean, and Western Pacific.

Monkeypox is a rare viral illness caused by the monkeypox virus This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

BackgroundInterleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) is a key mediator of antiviral immunity, and B14R proteins encoded by monkeypox virus (MPV) can interfere with its signaling. This study investigates the differences in IL-1β-binding capacity and apoptotic regulatory effects between two B14R protein isoforms encoded by MPV clades: the truncated B14R-180 (West African clade) and the full-length B14R-326 (Central African clade).MethodsThis study employed bioinformatics approaches to predict the binding affinity between B14R and IL-1β, and validated the findings through Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), flow cytometry, Quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR), and Western blot analyses.Resultsthe research demonstrates that B14R-180 exhibits superior binding efficiency to IL-1β compared to B14R-326, attributed to more hydrogen bonds (9 vs. 7), lower binding free energy (ΔG = -12.4 vs. -2.0 kJ/mol), and optimized binding interfaces. ELISA confirms the significantly higher binding affinity of B14R-180 for IL-1β (P < 0.05), with stronger competitive inhibition by anti-IL-1β antibodies in vaccinia-immune sera. Flow cytometry reveals that the combination of B14R-180 and IL-1β significantly reduces cell apoptosis rates in HeLa cells after 48 h (h) (P < 0.05), whereas B14R-326 has no significant effect. Subsequent qRT-PCR indicates that the B14R-180/IL-1β co-treatment downregulates the transcriptional expression of caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9, and caspase-10 (P < 0.001). Notably, caspase-3 exhibited dual-level suppression, with significant reductions in both mRNA and protein abundance.ConclusionsThese results reveal distinct anti-apoptotic profiles of B14R isoforms and suggest that B14R-180 may enhance MPV immune evasion through high-affinity IL-1β binding. These findings provide critical mechanistic insights to guide the development of MPV vaccines and targeted therapeutic strategies.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12985-025-02962-w.