Spiraling resources and emotional well‐being: Longitudinal evidence for resource gain and loss spirals in COR and JD‐R theories

PurposeThis paper sets out to examine proactive personality in relation to job demands, job resources and engagement.Design/methodology/approachThe current study employed a two‐wave complete panel study among 794 Dutch government employees. Based upon the Job Demands‐Resources (JD‐R) model, previous studies, job crafting theories, and Conservation of Resources (COR) theory, hypotheses on the associations of proactive personality with job demands, resources, and engagement were developed.FindingsAnalyses revealed that proactive personality was associated with an increase in engagement 18 months later. Moreover, proactive employees perceiving high social support reported the highest levels of engagement over time.Research limitations/implicationsA first shortcoming is that proactive personality was only measured at one point in time, which restricted the testing of causal relationships of proactive personality with engagement. Second, this study only measured engagement as outcome measure and third variables may have affected the associations of proactive personality with job demands and resources and engagement. Third, only small effect sizes of proactive personality (and job demands and resources) on engagement over time were found. With regard to theoretical implications, this study suggests a refinement of the JD‐R model by perceiving proactive personality as a personal resource which coincides with job resources such as social support and/or is triggered by (low) external job demands in increasing engagement.Practical implicationsSince this study's findings suggest that proactive personality is a personal resource with beneficial effects on employees' levels of work‐related engagement, employers are advised to promote the behavior expressed by proactive employees. When employees are under challenged due to a low level of quantitative job demands or when they want to optimize their work environment in case of high job demands, proactive personality may have a positive impact on their engagement over time, in particular when combined with high levels of support from their colleagues and supervisor.Originality/valueThis study's value consists of its innovative effort to relate proactive personality to engagement 18 months later. In addition, the longitudinal design of this study made it possible to examine the associations of proactive personality, job demands and resources with engagement over time.

The Job Demand-Resources (JD-R) Model has been used to investigate many work outcomes. However, few focused its effectsto in-role performance work outcomes and none on flow as mediator in an eastern context. Thus, the objectivesof this study areto examine the relationship between flow and in-role performance as well as whether flow mediates the relationship between antecedents (job demand and job resources) and in-role performance among East Malaysian hotel employees. 290 full time frontline and backline employees from four-and five-star rated hotel in Sarawak responded the self-administered questionnaire. Data was analyzed with SPSS version 22 and PROCESS approach. Results confirmed that flow experience positively correlateswith in-role performance while also imposesa robust mediating effect between job resources and in-role performance. However, results have shown that flow has no mediation impact on the relationship between job demand and in-role performance. Precisely, hotel employees with provision of sufficient job resources (such as autonomy, social support, performance feedback, possibilities for professional development) are further likely to encounter flow experience, and as a result, are likely to exhibit better in-role performance. Thus, hotel management should redesign jobs and commensurate tasks to encourage flow experiences, which in return lead to better in-role performance that directly contributes to overall performance of the hotel. In addition, management should provide for job resources to encourage task autonomy and better social support systems.

The contemporary educational environment, especially under conditions of systemic crisis and military conflict, imposes an unprecedented psychological burden on University students. This kind of chronic stress substantially increases the risk of developing burnout syndrome, characterized by emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced personal accomplishment. The relevance of this study is determined by the need to identify internal protective mechanisms that modulate the impact of crisis-related stressors on students’ mental health and academic performance. The theoretical framework is based on the Job Demands– Resources (JD-R) Model and, more specifically, Hobfoll’s Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory. The latter postulates that stress arises not only from resource loss but also from the lack of resource gain following significant investment, which is typical for contexts of prolonged uncertainty. The study focuses on the differentiated influence of two key psychological resources, as resilience and tolerance for uncertainty like specific components of burnout. Empirical findings indicate that higher levels of psychological resources are inversely correlated with manifestations of burnout in general. Resilience demonstrates a multifaceted moderating function by significantly reducing both emotional exhaustion caused by chronic fatigue and digital hyperconnectivity, as well as the reduction of personal accomplishment, thereby supporting cognitive functioning and self-esteem. Tolerance for uncertainty, on the other hand, serves as a critical psychological buffer that prevents emotional exhaustion triggered by chronic anxiety resulting from uncontrollable external chaos and future unpredictability. The results provide a valuable foundation for developing targeted preventive psychological interventions aimed at enhancing students’ internal resilience and long-term adaptation in crisis conditions. Our future research should be focused on longitudinal structural modeling to clarify the dynamics of these interrelations.

This intra-individual study examined relationships over time of job demands and resources with employee perceptions of psychological contract breach and violation, or the emotional impact of breach. Based on Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory, we expected job demands to increase the susceptibility of experiencing contract breach and violation over time, and we expected this relationship to be moderated by available job resources. In particular, autonomy and social support were expected to buffer relationships of job demands with breach, while development was expected to intensify relationships between job demands and breach. For violation, we expected job resources to intensify the relationships between job demands and breach, in line with the betrayal hypothesis. Analyses on weekly diary data showed that weekly job demands were related to higher contract breach perceptions in the following week when autonomy and social support were low and when development was high. Moreover, weekly job demands were related to higher violation in the next week, especially when social support was high. The study shows that job demands may be related to higher odds of experiencing a breach and higher violation, and job resources may play opposite roles in moderating the relationships of job demands with breach and violation.

Purpose The purpose of this study is to shed light on the job resources and demands of employees working in virtual teams and the impact of these job factors on their work engagement levels. Specifically, the authors focus on identifying the differing significance of employee job resources and demands on their virtual work engagement levels. Design/methodology/approach A qualitative approach grounded on abductive analysis is used to arrive at the findings. The methods for data collection include participant observation and semistructured interviews of 27 software engineers in the Indian information technology sector, working with virtual teams. Findings The authors identified the virtual-work-induced job demands and resources. Primarily, the authors found 14 job factors related to high and low levels of individual virtual work engagement, and classified them under eight aggregate dimensions: psychosocial hurdles, collaboration challenges, leadership and operational issues, dehumanization under job demands, supportive leadership, personal resources, alternate sources of income and learning goal orientation under job resources. Consequently, the authors built an importance–frequency work engagement map based on how these job factors are related to low and high levels of work engagement. Research limitations/implications This study’s qualitative nature limits the generalizability of the findings. Hence, further studies are encouraged to corroborate the findings. There is also a possibility of the social desirability bias that could have affected the results as participants may have perceived an element of risk in sharing all their honest feelings and perceptions. This may have especially been the case for those with higher status or positions in the company. Practical implications The findings suggest practical measures either to engage employees in their free time or to improve loyalty. There is a clear potential for the organization and virtual leader to communicate effectively about the expected goals, arrange informal interactions and reduce scrutiny of monitoring, thereby increasing the remote workers’ resources. Originality/value The originality of this study comes from multiple factors. First, the authors highlight ta contextual adaptation of the job demands-resources (JD-R) model into a virtual team context. By extension, the authors examine “how much” does both the job resources and demands contribute to the wellbeing of the employees working in virtual teams. Second, the authors construct an importance–frequency work engagement map (specifically for the virtual work context) based on the findings, which categorizes the observed resources and demands into four quadrants. The authors propose that this map could be a possible extension to the JD-R model, highlighting the differing significance of each resource and demand to employee work engagement.

This chapter outlines the building blocks of the job demands–resources (JD‐R) theory, a theory that has been inspired by job design and job stress theories. Whereas job design theories have often ignored the role of job stressors or demands, job stress models have largely ignored the motivating potential of job resources.JD‐R theory combines the two research traditions, and explains how job demands and (job and personal) resources have unique and multiplicative effects on job stress and motivation. In addition,JD‐R theory proposes reversed causal effects: whereas burned‐out employees may create more job demands over time for themselves, engaged workers mobilize their own job resources to stay engaged. The chapter closes with a discussion of possibleJD‐R interventions.

Background: The main objective of the current study was to investigate a multilevel model of empowering leadership, job demands, job resources, workplace boredom and work engagement. Specifically, this research examines the direct effects of empowering leadership on job demands and resources (i.e., social support and emotional demands), followed by exploring the direct effects of these specific job demands and resources on workplace boredom and work engagement. We also examine the mediational relationships between empowering leadership and workplace boredom via job demands and the mediational relationships between empowering leadership and work engagement via job resources by using the job demands–resources (JD-R) model. We argued that empowering leadership as an important indicator to improve employees’ work engagement and diminish workplace boredom by creating more resources and reducing demands at work. Methods: The current study involved 392 employees from 63 workgroups in an oil and gas organization in Malaysia. Data were analyzed using hierarchical linear modelling (HLM) and a quantitative (multilevel study) cross-sectional approach was employed. Results: Results indicated that empowering leadership had a positive relationship with social support, and a negative relationship with emotional demands, and empowering leadership was also positively related to employees’ work engagement mediated by social support, and it was negatively related to workplace boredom mediated by emotional demands. Conclusions: These findings suggest that a workgroup level empowering leadership plays an important role as a predictor to working conditions (i.e., social support and emotional demands) and work outcomes (i.e., workplace boredom and work engagement). Received: 22 November 2024 / Accepted: 21 February 2024 / Published: 06 March 2025

Purpose Using the job demands-resources (JD-R) theory, our study aimed to examine the resources and demands of digital content creation (DCC), a growing occupation that remains underexplored from JD-R perspective. We focus on Indian YouTubers to offer contextually grounded insights into this emerging form of work. Design/methodology/approach Based on 21 semi-structured telephonic interviews with Indian YouTubers, this study examines the job demands and resources that define DCC, with a specific focus on the Indian context. Findings Drawing on JD-R theory, we identified the job resources and demands of the DCC occupation, which occurred at occupational, social, and digital ecosystem levels. The data analysis revealed several occupational, social, and digital ecosystem level resources and demands unique to this occupation (e.g. audience response uncertainty, and online hostility and trolling). The digital ecosystem level came up as a unique aspect of DCC, distinguishing it from other self-employed occupations. Under this level are resources such as “Digital platform capabilities” and demands such as “Navigating platform dynamics.” The findings show that the job resources and demands are interrelated and vary in their centrality. Research limitations/implications The grayscale diagram provides a nuanced understanding of the sources of the job resources and demands and their centrality, enabling both research and practice to accurately identify the areas to focus on for future research and effective interventions. Originality/value This study examines the job resources and demands of a growing but understudied occupational group. It extends the JD-R framework by developing a multi-level JD-R Grayscale Centrality Diagram, categorizing resources and demands into occupational, social, and digital ecosystem levels. The diagram reflects their centrality based on frequency and emphasis in participant accounts and captures their complex interrelations across levels, which are often oversimplified in existing research.

Service employees’ willingness to report complaints (WRC) is an important determinant of firms’ long-term growth. Despite its importance, we know little about the factors that drive or hinder employees’ WRC. Drawing on the job demands-resources (JDR) model, we propose job resources (supervisor support and employee empowerment) and job demands (perceived customer unfriendliness and workload) as antecedents of WRC. We also examine the mediational role of organizational commitment and customer orientation, and the moderating role of country, in the effect of JDR variables on WRC. Using data from German and Chinese service employees, we show that supervisor support and workload positively affect WRC, whereas employee empowerment and customer unfriendliness negatively affect it. Thus, contradictory to the prevailing assumption that job resources help employees achieve work goals and that job demands inhibit their achievement, we show job resources (supervisor support) and demands (workload) can enhance WRC, whereas other job resources (employee empowerment) and demands (customer unfriendliness) have inhibiting effects. Organizational commitment and customer orientation mediate the impact of all JDR variables on WRC except empowerment. Furthermore, supervisor support has a more positive, while empowerment and customer unfriendliness have a more negative effect for German than for Chinese service employees. Service managers may influence WRC by managing job resources, job demands, and employee-company and employee-customer interfaces. Besides, employees from individualistic countries (Germany) are more sensitive to the JDR environment than those from collectivistic countries (China). Thus, managing job resources and demands may reap more benefits in the form of enhanced WRC in individualistic than in collectivistic countries.

Technological advancements and the COVID-19 crisis have accelerated the adoption of telework, impacting employees' work dynamics. Moreover, an aging workforce emphasises the need for sustainable employability. With reference to the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model, this study explores how telework relates to job demands and job resources and, subsequently, to sustainable employability. The present study investigates the repercussions of increased telework on employees' sustainable employability. Hypotheses posit direct and indirect (i.e., mediated) relationships, providing insights for evidence-based telework policies. Data from 552 government employees was collected through an online survey. Data collection occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic when widespread teleworking was prevalent. A path model was employed to analyse associations between telework, job demands (specifically work pressure), job resources (social support, workplace communication, and role clarity), and sustainable employability dimensions, including vitality, work ability, and employability. Our path model reveals that heightened telework was associated with elevated work pressure and diminished role clarity. Surprisingly, a positive association emerges between work pressure and sustainable employability. Notably, no significant relationship is found between telework, social support, and workplace communication. Role clarity is likely to be pivotal, positively influencing vitality and employability. This study provides valuable insights into the effects of telework on job demands, resources, and sustainable employability. The unexpected positive association between work pressure and sustainable employability challenges conventional stressor paradigms. The relationships between telework, job demands, job resources, and sustainable employability uncovered in this study can contribute to evidence-based teleworking policies and strategies that support employee health and employability amidst evolving work structures.

Job demands-resources (JD-R) theory is commonly used to predict employee well-being, work behaviors, and performance. This article provides a short description of JD-R theory and discusses issues and questions that have been raised regarding the theory. These issues include the differences between conservation of resources theory and JD-R theory, whether a job resource can be a job demand, the impact of job resources on strain and health, the role of hindrance and challenge job demands in JD-R theory, the relationship between job demands and resources, and the likelihood of work engagement being a redundant concept. We also discuss whether JD-R theory can be falsified, the role of personality in the theory, within- and between-person effects in JD-R theory, the question whether there is a standard JD-R questionnaire, and the existence of loss and gain spirals. Finally, we discuss the use of JD-R theory in domains other than work and answer the question whether JD-R theory is universally applicable. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Human resource management (HRM) literature often uses motivational theories to examine how job design motivates employees to manage newly established employee behaviours such as knowledge-hiding. However, the literature finds that whereas job-design characteristics reduce knowledge hiding, others unexpectedly encourage it. By integrating the cost-benefit analysis framework into the job demands–resources (JD–R) theory, we examine how job demands and job resources as two distinct types of job-design characteristics influence the expected costs and benefits of sharing solicited knowledge to affect knowledge hiding differently. In summary, we find that job demands encourage knowledge hiding, whereas job resources lower it. We contribute that job-design characteristics act as job demands or resources to affect knowledge hiding differently. Further, we explain the unexpected findings concerning why and how job-design characteristics – as job demands – encourage knowledge hiding by stimulating the expected costs but do not motivate employees to produce the expected benefits. In addition, by integrating the cost-benefit analysis framework into the JD–R theory, we contribute that job demands and resources affect the cost-benefit analyses, influencing employees’ rational choice behaviour. This integration considerably expands the JD–R theory’s application scope from employee well-being and performance to rational choice behaviours.

The aim of this study was to examine the loss and gain of resources, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and dissociation among Jewish Ethiopian immigrants in Israel following exposure to stressful events occurring pre-, peri-, and post-migration. Resources are defined as objects (e.g., housing), conditions (e.g., employment), personal (e.g., self-esteem), or energy (e.g., culture). A random sample (N=478) of three waves of immigrants participated in the research (N1=165; N2=169; N3=144). The data were collected in 2001. Age, loss and gain of resources, traumatic events peri-migration, post-migration difficulties, posttraumatic symptoms, and dissociation were assessed. The relationships between the variables were assessed with multiple hierarchical regressions predicting PTSD and dissociation with gain and loss of resources, over and above age, immigration wave, and trauma. A significant relationship was found between PTSD symptoms and loss of self-esteem resources (r=0.17 p<0.001), while dissociation was positively associated with gain of housing resources (r=0.20, p<0.001). Both PTSD and dissociation were predicted by younger age. The findings are discussed in light of the conservation of resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, ), of resource loss and gain among Ethiopian immigrants.

This study examined the extent to which job and interpersonal demands and resources are associated with burnout and physical symptoms of stress among Canadian physicians. Using the job demands‐resources (JD‐R) model, we predicted that demands would be more strongly related to emotional exhaustion and physical symptoms, whereas resources would be more strongly related to personal accomplishment and decreased depersonalization. The findings reveal that communication skills and emotional labor contributed to the explained variances beyond workload and work–life conflict (as job demands), as well as autonomy, predictability, and understanding (as job resources). The predictors were differentially associated with the outcome variables in a manner that is consistent with the JD‐R model. Implications for physician well‐being and improved patient outcomes are discussed.

Motivating Gen Z employees, the main labor force in the hospitality industry, with job resources and demands is challenging. This study explores the influences of Gen Z hotel employees’ perceived job resources, demands, and work engagement on service behavior based on the Job Demands- Resources (JD-R) model. A total of 212 valid online questionnaires were collected from Gen Z hotel employees in Taiwan. The results confirmed that job resources positively influenced perceived job demands and engagement, but job demands did not significantly affect work engagement. Further, work engagement positively influenced service behavior and mediated job resources and service behavior.