Specificity determinants of pathogens in forest

We evaluated trained listener—based acoustic sampling as a reliable and non-invasive method for rapid assessment of ensiferan species diversity in tropical evergreen forests. This was done by evaluating the reliability of identification of species and numbers of calling individuals using psychoacoustic experiments in the laboratory and by comparing psychoacoustic sampling in the field with ambient noise recordings made at the same time. The reliability of correct species identification by the trained listener was 100 % for 16 out of 20 species tested in the laboratory. The reliability of identifying the numbers of individuals correctly was 100% for 13 out of 20 species. The human listener performed slightly better than the instrument in detecting low frequency and broadband calls in the field, whereas the recorder detected high frequency calls with greater probability. To address the problem of pseudoreplication during spot sampling in the field, we monitored the movement of calling individuals using focal animal sampling. The average distance moved by calling individuals for 17 out of 20 species was less than 1.5 m in half an hour. We suggest that trained listener—based sampling is preferable for crickets and low frequency katydids, whereas broadband recorders are preferable for katydid species with high frequency calls for accurate estimation of ensiferan species richness and relative abundance in an area.

Tree communities contribute to maintenance of species diversity in tropical forests. Coexistence of many tree species is not without competition. Therefore, coexistence of tree species and size diversities occur sequentially or simultaneously in tropical natural forests. Understanding coexistence and competition mechanisms of tree species requires knowledge of interactions within and between species. However, many conservation efforts and strategies failed due to inability to identify and maintain functional coexistence mechanisms among tree species in the forest. Also, most trees died because of pressure on their habitats and not because of limiting growth resources. Hence, species identity, minimum distance and size of the neighbouring trees which are responsible for coexistence of competing trees in most tropical forests have not been explicitly reviewed. Therefore, this review evaluated some of the density dependent mechanisms for coexistence of tree species alpha diversity in tropical forests. Many interactive mechanisms are responsible for coexistence tree species in tropical forests. Inter- and intra-specific competitions are the most significant and both facilitate positive and negative density dependence. Therefore, switching from negative to positive density dependence may occur in some situations. Positive and negative density effects regulate species abundance and coexistence through conspecific and heterospecific structures. Aggregates of conspecific and heterospecific neighbours constitute forest spatial structure. Negative density interactions are mutually exclusive and basically ranged from effect of species identity of neighbours, distance to neighbours and tree size of the neighbours to reference trees in the community structures. Some mechanisms shorten distances for heterospecific than conspecific interactions. Conspecific structures improved survival and growth of rare tree species. Interactive mechanisms in tree community and population structures facilitate species diversity and size inequality, respectively.

The complex stratification of tropical forests is a key feature that directly contributes to high aboveground biomass (AGB) and species diversity. This study aimed to explore the vertical patterns of AGB and tree species diversity in the tropical forest of Pasoh Forest Reserve, Malaysia. To achieve this goal, we used a combination of field surveys and drone technology to gather data on species diversity, tree height (H), and tree diameter at breast height (D). As all trees in the 6 ha plot were tagged and identified, we used the data to classify the taxonomy and calculate species diversity indices. We used unmanned aerial vehicle-based structure-from-motion photogrammetry to develop a Digital Canopy Height Model to accurately estimate H. The collected data and previous datasets were then used to develop Bayesian height–diameter (HD) models that incorporate taxonomic effects into conventional allometric and statistical models. The best models were selected based on their performance in cross-validation and then used to estimate AGB per tree and the total AGB in the plot. Results showed that taxonomic effects at the family and genus level improved the HD models and consequent AGB estimates. The AGB was the highest in the higher layers of the forest, and AGB was largely contributed by larger trees, especially specific families such as Dipterocarpaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Fabaceae. In contrast, species diversity was the highest in the lower layers, whereas functional diversity was the highest in the middle layers. These contrasting patterns of AGB and species diversity indicate different roles of forest stratification and layer-specific mechanisms in maintaining species diversity. This study highlights the importance of considering taxonomic effects when estimating AGB and species diversity in tropical forests. These findings underscore the need for a more comprehensive understanding of the complex stratification of tropical forests and its impact on the forest ecosystem.

A prominent hypothesis to account for the maintenance of the woody species diversity in tropical forests is niche differentiation with respect to resources (Ashton 1969, Connell 1978). According to the hypothesis, species can coexist when each species is specialized for a specific set of growth conditions. Spatial and temporal variations in the forest understorey light conditions can be an important niche gradient. If species are adapted to a certain light condition for optimizing growth and share different optimal light conditions with each other, they can coexist by reducing direct competition; i.e. the regeneration niche differentiation sensu Grubb (1977). Species difference in rate of exclusion of trees in suboptimal light conditions due to mortality also contributes to species coexistence. Many scientists have emphasized the importance of the spatial and temporal variations in understorey light conditions on species coexistence in tropical forests (Clark & Clark 1992, Kohyama & Hotta 1990, Poorter & Arets 2003). Allometry and architecture of a tree reflect strategies of space occupation in a forest (King 1990, Kohyama & Hotta 1990, Poorter & Werger 1999). Thus, tree allometry and architecture provide information on species coexistence. Yamada et al. (2005) analysed interspecific differences in allometry and architecture of two sympatric congeneric species, Pterospermum diversifolium and P. javanicum, in a Bornean floodplain forest and concluded that the sapling growth strategy of P. diversifolium appears to be dynamic, emphasizing the opportunistic use of light following a disturbance, whereas that of P. javanicum appears to be static, emphasizing better leaf display for current light conditions. Based on these results, they proposed equilibrium coexistence mechanisms between the two species in a community. The advantage of these strategies depends on context, and thus the two species may coexist by adopting different regeneration niches based on differing understorey light conditions; P. diversifolium was hypothesized to outperform P. javanicum in bright microsites, and on the other hand, P. javanicum is hypothesized to outperform P. diversifolium in shaded microsites.

This communication examines fruit feeding behaviour in rain forest dung beetle communities from Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, and looks at divergences within this guild. Special attention is given to fig-feeding behaviour in one species of dung beetle, and to the implications that such specializations have for the measurement of rarity and species diversity in tropical forests. Possible repercussions for the species of tree on whose fruits dung beetles feed are also discussed. Dung beetles exploit ephemeral resources that are patchily distributed through time and space. In most cases, they display generalist coprophagous feeding strategies, although resource specificity has been shown to play an important role in the population ecology of some dung feeding species (Balthasar 1967, Cambefort 1991, Kingston 1977). In tropical rain forests, where mammalian biomass is significantly less than in other areas (i.e. the African savannas - Cambefort & Walter 1991), and dung is therefore more limiting, some dung beetles have adapted to feed on fruit, fungi, carrion and plant detritus (Halffter & Matthews 1966, Hanski 1989a), and the dung of birds and reptiles (Howden & Young 1981, Young 1981). Other rain forest species demonstrate specialization to either omnivore or herbivore dung (Estrada et al. 1993). Differences in feeding strategies within dung beetle communities in tropical forests together represent an important niche-axis through which individual species can diverge from sympatric congeners, and leads to enhanced local species richness.

Seed dispersal and seedling recruitment (the transition of seeds to seedlings) set the spatiotemporal distribution of new individuals in plant communities. Many terrestrial rain forest mammals consume post-dispersal seeds and seedlings, often inflicting density-dependent mortality. In part because of density-dependent mortality, diversity often increases during seedling recruitment, making it a critical stage for species coexistence. We determined how mammalian predators, adult tree abundance, and seed mass interact to affect seedling recruitment in a western Amazonian rain forest. We used exclosures that were selectively permeable to three size classes of mammals: mice and spiny rats (weighing <1 kg), medium-sized rodents (1-12 kg), and large mammals (20-200 kg). Into each exclosure, we placed seeds of 13 tree species and one canopy liana, which varied by an order of magnitude in adult abundance and seed mass. We followed the fates of the seeds and resulting seedlings for at least 17 months. We assessed the effect of each mammalian size class on seed survival, seedling survival and growth, and the density and diversity of the seedlings that survived to the end of the experiment. Surprisingly, large mammals had no detectable effect at any stage of seedling recruitment. In contrast, small- and medium-sized mammals significantly reduced seed survival, seedling survival, and seedling density. Furthermore, predation by small mammals increased species richness on a per-stem basis. This increase in diversity resulted from their disproportionately intense predation on common species and large-seeded species. Small mammals thereby generated a rare-species advantage in seedling recruitment, the critical ingredient for frequency dependence. Predation by small (and to a lesser extent, medium-sized) mammals on seeds and seedlings significantly increases tree species diversity in tropical forests. This is the first long-term study to dissect the effects of various mammalian predators on the recruitment of a diverse set of tree species.

The high tree species diversity in tropical forests is difficult to take into account in models. The usual solution consists of defining groups of species and then adjusting a set of parameters for each group. In this study, we address this issue by allowing a species to move from one species group to another, depending on the biological process that is concerned. We developed this approach with a matrix model of forest dynamics, for a tropical rain forest in French Guiana, at Paracou, focusing on the methodological aspects. The forest dynamics was split into three components: recruitment, growth and mortality. We then built five recruitment groups, five growth groups and five mortality groups. One species was characterized by a combination of the three groups, thus yielding in total 5×5×5=125 possibilities, out of which 43 were actually observed. The resulting matrix model provided a better view of the floristic composition of the forest, and did not have more parameters than it would have with five global species groups. However, its predictions were no more precise than those of the matrix model based on five global groups.

According to the Janzen-Connell model, high mortality of seeds and seedlings in proximity to conspecific adults can help maintain species diversity in tropical forests. Using a natural population of big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King), we tested the model's mechanism by examining seed predation and juvenile recruitment in the forest understory and in treefall gaps in the vicinity of both isolated and clumped adults. We used tethered seeds placed in three types of exclosure plots: (1) complete access to seeds, (2) semi-access (access by small-sized seed predators) and (3) no access (all mammals excluded). Exclosure treatments were applied within the understory (both near and far from adults) and in gaps at eight fruiting adults in the late dry season (2001) and scored ten months later. Significantly more seeds were removed in canopy gaps near clumped adults than at isolated adults; otherwise, none of the treatment factors significantly influenced seed predation. In contrast, understory juvenile recruitment was significantly enhanced by distance from adults and was twice as high at isolated than clumped adults, providing novel support for the Janzen-Connell mechanism. No-access exclosures protected significantly more seeds than semi- and full-access exclosures, implicating small mammals in seed losses. Across the eight trees, juvenile recruitment in the no-access exclosures decreased significantly with conspecific adult densities, implicating non-mammalian density-responsive factor(s) in mortality following germination; likely a known specialist invertebrate herbivore. When all treatments were combined, conspecific adult basal area and total DBH explained 72 and 90% of variation in overall juvenile recruitment, respectively. Collectively, these results indicate that Janzen-Connell effects can operate in S. macrophylla, especially during the seed-to-seedling transition, and will likely reduce recruitment in areas of high conspecific densities. They also suggest that further research into the causes of density-dependence in tropical trees should investigate mortality agents following germination.

The abundance of forest tree species may be locally limited by the inability of species to disperse to all sites suitable for germination and establishment. This phenomenon of “dispersal limitation” has been suggested to promote the maintenance of high species diversity in tropical forests by slowing down competitive exclusion. We present the first direct experimental evaluation of dispersal limitation in tropical forests, and of its importance relative to other factors affecting recruitment. Seed addition, litter removal and light availability effects on seedling establishment were evaluated in a full factorial experiment on two African mahogany species, Entandrophragma utile and Khaya anthotheca. Seedling recruitment after 18 months, was ∼22 times greater in seed addition treatments (with addition rates corresponding to the tail of seed shadows of large reproductive trees) compared to controls. This seed addition effect was an order of magnitude greater than either gap or litter removal effects, with similar results observed in both logged and primary forest locations. We conclude that dispersal limitation strongly limits seedling establishment for the two species studied. An important “applied corollary” of this result is that seed supplementation may substantially increase local abundance of valuable or rare species in disturbed or managed tropical forests.

Background and Aim: Phytosociological investigation of vegetation serves as a pre-requisite for investigating the details of theprimary productivity of an ecosystem. The present study deals with Environmental Statistics and Ecological Assessment of treespecies diversity in Srikakulam and Vizianagaram districts of Andhra Pradesh, India. Methods: The present investigation dealswith the comparison of species diversity indices of plant species i.e., Simpson’s index, Shannon –wiener index, species richnesswith other counter parts. Importance Value Index = Relative density + Relative frequency + Relative dominance Based on thefrequency classes of tree species were determined. According to Raunkiaer classify to There are 5 frequency classes, i.e. 'A' classwith the species of frequency ranging from 1-20%; 'B' class 21- 40%; 'C' class 41-60%; 'D' class 61-80% and 'E' class 81- 100%based on the frequency pattern of the community, the homogeneity and heterogeneity of the vegetation. Results: The studyresulted in documentation of total 165 tree species, belonging to 119 genera and 50 families were recorded, and 160 are dicots and5 are monocots. The ecological studies have taken up to visualize the positive impact of protection on tree diversity. Conclusion:An understanding of the distribution of tree species and their assemblages must play an important role in elucidating the largerpatterns of distribution of diversity. The quantitative inventory of tree species diversity revealed a considerable variation in thecomposition of dominant species and density in various forest areas and the estimations of IVI have helped to understanding theecological significance of the species, present in different communities.

A fundamental question in ecology is how many species occur within a given area. Despite the complexity and diversity of different ecosystems, there exists a surprisingly simple, approximate answer: the number of species is proportional to the size of the area raised to some exponent. The exponent often turns out to be roughly 1/4. This power law can be derived from assumptions about the relative abundances of species or from notions of self-similarity. Here we analyze the largest existing data set of location-mapped species: over one million, individually identified trees from five tropical forests on three continents. Although the power law is a reasonable, zeroth-order approximation of our data, we find consistent deviations from it on all spatial scales. Furthermore, tropical forests are not self-similar at areas </=50 hectares. We develop an extended model of the species-area relationship, which enables us to predict large-scale species diversity from small-scale data samples more accurately than any other available method.

A abertura de clareiras naturais, causada pela queda de uma ou mais árvores do dossel, é considerada um mecanismo de manutenção da diversidade de árvores e arbustos nas florestas tropicais. Em um trecho da floresta Atlântica montana no Sudeste do Brasil, foram amostrados todos os indivíduos maiores que 1 m de altura em 30 clareiras (30,3-500,5 m²). Entre as 220 espécies arbóreo-arbustivas amostradas, 24% foram pioneiras, sendo 88,7% de ciclo de vida curto e 11,3% de ciclo de vida longo. Espécies de Miconia, Leandra e Rapanea representaram 49% do total das espécies e 62,1% do total dos indivíduos pioneiros amostrados. No local de estudo, a idade, a área das clareiras, a altura do dossel adjacente e a cobertura de bambu explicaram entre 20% e 73% das variações nas características de ocupação das clareiras por pioneiras. Encontraram-se evidências de que na floresta Atlântica montana: (1) há, em nível de paisagem, riqueza elevada de pequenas árvores e arbustos pioneiros, associados à ocupação e à partição de hábitats iluminados, como as florestas abertas dos topos de morro; (2) a ocupação dos hábitats iluminados por espécies de bambu e bambusóides afeta a densidade, a diversidade e a riqueza local de espécies pioneiras; e (3) fatores ecológicos, como a baixa freqüência de grandes clareiras e daquelas formadas por árvores desenraizadas, são alguns dos fatores responsáveis pela reduzida riqueza local de pioneiras nessa floresta.

Seedling growth of three co-occurring Entandrophragma species (Meliaceae) under simulated light environments: implications for forest management in central Africa

Relationship between aboveground biomass and measures of structure and species diversity in tropical forests of Vietnam

The Janzen-Connell hypothesis suggests that density- and/or distance-dependent juvenile mortality driven by host-specific natural enemies can explain high species diversity in tropical forests. However, such density and distance effects may not occur simultaneously and may not be driven by the same mechanism. Also, reports of attempts to identify and quantify the differences between these processes in tropical forests are scarce. In a primary subtropical forest in China, we (1) experimentally examined the relative influence of the distance to parent trees vs. conspecific seedling density on mortality patterns in Engelhardia fenzelii, (2) tested the role of soil-borne pathogens in driving density- or distance-dependent processes that cause seedling mortality, and (3) inspected the susceptibilities of different tree species to soil biota of E. fenzelii and the effects of soil biota from different tree species on E. fenzelii. The results from these field experiments showed that distance- rather than density-dependent processes driven by soil pathogens strongly affect the seedling survival of this species in its first year. We also observed increased survival of a fungicide treatment for E. fenzelii seedlings in the parent soil but not for the seedlings of the other three species in the E. fenzelii parent soil, or for E. fenzelii seedlings in the parent soil of three other species. This study illustrates how the distance-dependent pattern of seedling recruitment for this species is driven by soil pathogens, a mechanism that likely restricts the dominance of this abundant species.