SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROFESSIONAL FULFILLMENT OF DOCTORAL SCHOOLS’ SCIENTIFIC POTENTIAL IN THE REPUBLIC OF POLAND

Since 1999, there has been a rapid expansion in enrollment in Chinese higher education. By 2003, its gross enrollment had risen to 17 percent of the age-cohort (which typically refers to the age group from 18 to 22 in China and 18 to 21 in Japan), indicating that Chinese higher education had entered the phase of mass higher education, according to Martin Trow's definition. Mass higher education in China was achieved nearly 40 years later than in Japan, but it is still worth conducting a comparative study. This chapter is concerned with similarities and differences in massification of higher education between China and Japan and focuses on the character, tendency, and policy choice of massification of these two systems of higher education in a comparative perspective. First, by reviewing rationales and policies for massification of higher education in the two countries, it is pointed out that although both countries share similarities, massification of higher education in Japan was greatly influenced by industrial demand, while in China it was heavily affected by a rapid increase in more graduates from senior higher schools and by unemployment. Second, how mass higher education was achieved in the two countries is examined. Third, based on quantitative analyses, this chapter illustrates the two types of massification of higher education arising from differences in the history and traditions of higher education institutions, political influences, social backgrounds, and international contexts. Finally, the chapter considers the progress of massification of Chinese higher education and puts forward some recommendations at the policy level for the further development of higher education in China in light of the Japanese experiences.

Ch. 1. Mass Higher Education and Its Challenges for Rapidly Growing East Asian Higher Education (J.C. Shin, Seoul National University).- Part I. National Strategy for Mass Higher Education.- Ch. 2. Higher Education Development in Japan (F. Huang, Hiroshima University).- Ch. 3. Higher Education Development in Korea: Accomplishments and Challenges (J.C. Shin, Seoul National University).- Ch. 4. The Path toward Mass Higher Education in China (X. G. Shi, Peking University).- Ch. 5. Higher Education Development in Taiwan(P. Chou, National Chengchi University).- Ch. 6. Higher Education in Malaysia: National Strategies and Innovative Practices (M. Lee, University of Sains Malaysia).- Ch. 7. From Massification towards the Post-massification of Higher Education in Hong Kong (Jisun Jung and G. Postiglione, University of Hong Kong).- Part II. Academics and Students in Mass Higher Education.- Ch. 8. What Happened to Universal Education? In the West and in Asia (W. K. Cummings and Katrina Santner, George Washington University).- Ch. 9. Teaching and Curriculum Development in Mass and Universal Higher Education (F. Huang, Hiroshima University).- Ch. 10. Students in the Post-Massified Higher Education- What has changed and What has stayed the same in the Massification of Japanese higher education (K. Shima, Hiroshima University).- Ch. 11. Learning Ants: A Portrait of Chinese College Students in Mass Higher Education(Y. Luo, Tsinghua University).- Ch. 12. Students in Mass Higher Education: Effects of Student Engagement in Taiwan (D. Chang, Tamkang University).- Ch. 13. What Makes the Quality of Students' Learning?: Focusing on the Articulation between High School and University (R. Yamada, Doshisha University).- Part III. Challenges Facing Mass Higher Education.- Ch.14. Who benefits from Taiwan's Mass Higher Education? (P. Chou, National Chengchi University).- Ch. 15. Improving School to University Transitions during Mass Higher Education: A policy perspective (G. Postiglione, University of Hong Kong).- Ch. 16. Higher Education and the World of Work: The Perennial Controversial Debate (U. Teichler, Kassel University).- Ch. 17. The Employment of College Graduates: Changing Wages in Mass Higher Education (S. Chan and C. Yang, National Chung Cheng University).- Ch. 18. The Quality of Mass Higher Education in East Asia- Development and Challenges for Asian Quality Assurance Agencies in the Glonacal higher education (Angela Yung Chi Hou, Fu Jen Catholic University).- Ch. 19. Faculty Participation in University Decision Making and Management in Japan (A. Morozumi, University of Tokyo).- Ch. 20. The Effects of Massification on Higher Education for Teacher Education in Taiwan (C. M. Liang, Taitung University & C. Chang, Vanung University).- Conclusion.- Ch. 21. Conclusion: Lessons from Higher Education Development in East Asia (J.C. Shin, Seoul National University).

Introduction. Currently, internationalisation is a priority for the development of higher education, as an institutional component of its academic functioning, both in terms of ensuring the quality of education, and in connection with the implementation of a multi-level integration agenda, in which a modern university is involved. In order to increase the effectiveness of the international dimension of higher education, it remains necessary to clarify a number of theoretical and fundamental questions, among them one of the most important is the problem of the institutional conditions of the academic environment that contribute to the emergence of internationalisation. Mass higher education can be found as fundamental condition and in that relation the clarification of the interrelations between massification and internationalisation of higher education can expand the theoretical understanding of current processes in higher education, providing the necessary theoretical framework for further applied research.The aim of the present article is to investigate the interrelations between the massification and internationalisation of higher education in order to clarify the institutional conditions that contribute to the development of the international dimension of the modern university.Methodology and research methods. The methodological framework of this research involves socio-philosophical tools. In particular, the research is based on a retrospective analysis and philosophical deconstruction of the socio-historical transition of higher education from elite to mass model. Both statistical data and analytical materials on the national conditions of transition to mass higher education are used to investigate the issue.Results. The massification of the higher school became reality due to the historical development of social systems, representing the further evolution of global higher education. Acting as a source of society's emancipation and democratisation, the massification of higher education ensured the reorientation of universities from upbringing needs (ideology) to professional competence (economics). Meanwhile, mass higher education is considered to be the reason of destruction of the imperialist agenda, including the problem of alienated labour. Institutionally, the massification of higher education has become possible due the state-private cooperation. The implementation of this cooperation requires two options: 1) via government subsidies to private higher education, 2) via private investments into public higher education. Mass higher education is an institutional factor of internationalisation development: 1) it creates a need to improve the quality of education; 2) it acts as an instrument of the international integration.Scientific novelty. The connection between mass education and internationalisation of higher education has been found. Mass higher education acts as an institutional factor in the formation of academic demand for the development of internationalisation processes: 1) forming the need to improve the quality of education; 2) acting as one of the tools for implementing the integration agenda. The absence of processes of massification and internationalisation in the modern system of higher education may indicate on fundamental barriers in the national development of a particular state.Practical significance. The results obtained will contribute to further fundamental research in the fields of philosophy and sociology of education. Moreover, the present findings could be applied as a theoretical basis for further practical research on modern processes of higher education development.

Massification of higher education and challenges for graduate employment and social mobility: East Asian experiences and sociological reflections

The concept of competency is considered both in relation to the educational competency of the short-cycle student described in the ‘Dublin Descriptors' of the Bologna Process and in the European Commission's European Qualifications Framework, and in relation to the legal competency that the European Commission has within the field of education and training. This article focuses specifically on the short-cycle/foundation degree introduced in 2003 into the pan-European Bologna Process, and considers its relevance to the European Union's Lisbon Strategy. It argues that the ‘short-cycle/foundation’ student represents the mid knowledge-skilled learner that is frequently missing from policies and analyses of the knowledge economy that concentrate on either ‘basic skills' learners or graduates/postgraduates and that this particular learner, clearly linked to employment, is located at the intersection of vocational and academic learning. The article also considers the role of the European Commission in both the Lisbon and Bologna Processes. Based on an analysis of policy texts the article suggests that the two definitions of competency, whilst quite distinct, are, at the level of policy, very closely connected and serve to increase the Commission's activities within areas of education that are beyond their legal competence.

For the last few decades, European higher education has gone through significant transformation which has been driven by broad global developments, such as massification of higher education, a global competition, and economic benefits of education (Maassen & Stensaker, forthcoming). The direct and indirect influence of the European dimension is another force that gradually changes the nature of higher education in Europe. The pace of change has accelerated since the 1990s, particularly with the Sorbonne Declaration (1998), the Bologna Declaration (1999), and the Lisbon Strategy (2000). The first two have led to a process to make study programmes more compatible and transparent across Europe as well as to the outside world. The Lisbon process seeks to reform the continent’s still fragmented national systems into a more powerful and more integrated knowledge-based economy in which higher education is regarded one of the key drivers of innovative capacity. Subsequent communications from European policy makers have strengthened the belief that higher education institutions will be crucial to Europe’s future well-being and that stronger cooperation between countries and universities in this endeavour is a necessary condition for success.KeywordsHigh EducationHigh Education InstitutionHigh Education SystemHigh Education SectorSoft SkillThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

In the article, I focus on some of the intersections of geopolitical location and the position of gender studies as a discipline in the Czech Republic. The first section depicts the functioning of the higher education and research systems in the Czech Republic and the establishment of gender studies and its institutionalisation. The second section then looks at the intersection of geopolitics and neo-liberalism and how it affects local gender studies. Based on 27 semi-structured interviews with scholars and activists, and observations and practice as a gender studies researcher at the Centre for Gender and Science, I explore how a specific geopolitical setting impacts the field of gender studies and scholars navigating it. I argue that gender studies as a discipline has profited from the massification of higher education, which many see as part of neo-liberal higher education reforms. At the same time, research into gender-related issues has been assisted by the incorporation of gender, e. g. in the European Research Area and in other EU policies. This positioning of gender studies is at least partly problematic as it both strengthens the local focus on institutionalised (rather than grassroots) activities and may undermine the perceived local relevance of the discipline that resonates with early post-1989 anti-feminist discourse that has not been effectively challenged so far.

With the moderating power of the European Qualification Framework (EQF), European higher education has, for some time, been moving in a competence-oriented direction in some educational systems. The EQF is a competence framework that defines standards to all levels of qualification. The framework is set up to facilitate comparison of qualifications and qualifications' levels between and within different national educational systems. In this article, we are using the EQF to set the standards for the comparison between different higher education qualifications. The purpose is to reflect upon the differences of graduates with academically-oriented and professionally-oriented Master's degrees. We approach this problem by asking employers (survey, n=134) and graduates (interviews, n=30) for their opinion of how well the competence of academic and professional Master's degrees fit the objectives of the EQF level 7. Moreover, we are interested to explore how well the EQF lends itself to this kind of a comparison. The particular context for this study is the Finnish dual system of higher education.

Guidelines for open and online learning assessment and recognition with reference to the National and European qualification framework: micro-credentials as a proposal for tuning and transparency

In the past two decades, nearly all the countries in Southeast Asia have undertaken higher education reforms such as the massification, marketization, diversification, bureaucratization, and internationalization of higher education. All these reforms are aimed at widening access to higher education and diversifying its funding sources, as well as improving the quality, efficiency, and productivity of the higher education sector. Under such circumstances, much research has been done on how the governance and management of universities have changed over the years in these countries. The governance of universities focuses on the role of the state in providing, regulating, supervising, and steering the development of higher education in the country. The relationship between universities and the state revolves around the issues of autonomy and accountability. An emerging regional trend in the reforms of university governance is an increase in institutional autonomy in return for more public accountability. Several countries have shifted from a state-control model to a state-supervising model and from public provision of higher education to the privatization of higher education, the corporatization of public universities, and the establishment of autonomous universities. To ensure public accountability, most universities are subjected to both internal and external quality assurance. With the massification of higher education, universities usually enroll large numbers of students and become more complex organizations. In the context of governmental budget cuts, many universities are under great pressure to do more with less, to find ways to be less wasteful, and to develop better management in order to replace the missing resources. Various universities have adopted new public management techniques and a result-based management approach to improve efficiency and effectiveness. A central feature of new managerialism is “performativity” in the management of academic labor and the pressure for “academic capitalism.”

Before World War II, the research management and funding system in Poland was based on freedom of research and the autonomy of science. During the communist regime, it was subordinated to the state's planned and command system of government. After the political turnover, the reforms undertaken in 1991 included the establishment of a Committee for Scientific Research which gave to democratically elected representatives of the scientific community (which constituted the majority of its members) the responsibility for elaborating and implementing science policy. A grant system was also introduced, with direct competition between all institutions and researchers applying for research money. This covers the whole research sphere, despite the subordination of research institutions to different administrative sectors — the Polish Academy of Sciences, higher education or government units. Four theoretical models of research coordination are introduced to help explicate these changes and the views surrounding them. How were the principal changes perceived by the community of grant applicants, and what factors differentiated their opinions? This paper presents results from a survey conducted in 1993, among more than 700 applicants.

The phenomenon of 'massification in higher education ', which refers to the significant increase in the number of students enrolling in universities, has made it difficult for inclusive education to be attainable owing to unknown reasons that are encumbering the students living with disability from having a sense of belonging. Hence, this study aims to evaluate the relationship between students living with disability and social justice through inclusivity in higher education with the aid of Assistive Technology (AT) to conceptualise a framework. The researchers employed a mixed methods approach to collect and analyse data statistically and descriptively. The requirements for integrating the model to ease the lack of consideration of students living with disability in the digital age were evaluated and critically reviewed regarding its impact on students’ sense of belonging in the digital age. The major findings from this study elucidate the factors perceived as the central requirements for mitigating the lack of inclusivity and social justice in higher education. The procurement of ATs was topical as most respondents (83%) categorically opined the need to improve this process by making timely purchases of the proper ATs from reliable service providers. The successful implementation of this framework could significantly enhance the educational experience of students with disabilities at the University of Venda, making it a more inclusive and supportive learning environment. The findings on the appropriateness of ATs for students overwhelmingly indicated that many of the available devices and technologies meant to assist learners were not fit for the tasks they were intended for. The university should establish a procurement committee and a high-level action plan outlining the requirements for delivering assistive products & services.

In recent years most western democracies have experienced a shift from elite to mass higher education, with the United States leading the way. This text compares the experience of this very important social change within different nation states. Whilst recognising the critical global economic forces that appear to explain the international nature of the change, it sees the issues as rooted within different national traditions. There is a particular focus upon the discourse of access, especially the political discourse. The book addresses questions such as: * How has expansion been explained? * Has expansion been generated by state intervention or by a combination of economic and social forces? * What are the forms of political intervention? * What points of agreement and conflict are generated within the wider society by expanding access? Chapters: 1) The rise of mass higher education 2) Values, discourse and politics: an Australian comparative perspective 3) The politics of access to higher education in France 4) Bildung or Ausbildung? Reorienting German higher education 5) The value of higher education in a mass system: the Italian debate 6) Access to Dutch higher education: policies and trends 7) Access to higher education in the Nordic countries 8) Mass Higher Education in Poland: coping with the 'Spanish Collar' 9) British higher education and the prism of devolution 10) Access to higher eduction in England: who is in control? 11) A transatlantic persuasion: a comparative look at America's path towards access and equity in higher education 12) Conclusion: the reshaping of mass higher education

Higher education reform process introduced many innovations in educational systems and caused the passing many new regulations in this area. European knowledge society rests on two pillars - European Research Area - ERA and European Higher Education Area - EHEA. EHEA is being developed through international cooperation and academic exchange that is performed through government ministries, institutions of higher education, and students and teaching staff. It must be emphasized that economic and cultural globalization has imposed new challenges for the system of higher education. Internationalization of higher education is seen as one of the ways a country responds to the impact of globalization. Also, an important feature of the Bologna Process is the adoption of new approaches in higher education. One of them is concept Open Educational Resources. As can be seen in the paper, the Bologna Process represents a strategic transformation of higher education institutions, and the conclusion is that reform process in higher education leads to economic and social well-being of the country.

Britain is on the verge of a stage of development in higher education from which the United States is emerging; the former, many believe, is about to move from elite to mass higher education, while the latter is in transition toward universal access to varied forms of post-secondary schooling. Britain is in fact a long way, even in numbers, from a mass system of higher education. A recent report on comparative national enrollment rates indicated that the proportion of the age group 18 to 22 enrolled in all forms of higher education in the United Kingdom in 1968-69 was 13.5%. By comparison, the proportion of the age group 18 to 23 enrolled in the United States was 35%. (Cerych, 1972) A British commentator was correct in saying that if there are 835,000 students in higher education in 1981, which is the estimate of the Department of Education and Science (widely criticized as much too low), Britain will still not have a mass higher education system on the scale of the United States. (Scott, 1970) Neither will mass higher education have arrived if the Labour party's proposal to provide for at least one million full-time students in 1980 succeeds. It has been suggested that it would take 1,500,000 students in Britain to approach the present scale of mass higher education in the United States and certain other countries. (Crampin and Armitage, 1970)