Special Issue on Food Crimes and Harms of the Food Supply Chain: Activities, Actors and Countermeasures

Food crime is a serious issue often occurs within the food industry. It also impacted halal food supply chain, where halal integrity can no longer be maintained due to unethical act of food crime. Various studies has discussed on food crime, however, there are very few discussing from the perspective of fiqh al-‘uqūbah (Jurisprudence of punishment) in Islam. Therefore, this study was conducted to discuss food crime within the framework of fiqh al-‘uqūbah to enlighten their relationship. To achieve the research objectives, this study involves collecting data through literature review and analysis by utlizing qualitative approach. Based on the study findings, there are relationship between food crime in fiqh al-‘uqūbah through the concept of takzir (discretionary punishments). Therefore, based on the principles of Islamic fiqh al-‘uqūbah, food crime analysed through the pillar of crime (arkān al-jarīmah) and fits with the definition of crime from Islamic perspective. Jenayah makanan merupakan isu serius yang sering berlaku di dalam industri makanan. Ia juga terjadi di dalam rantaian bekalan makanan halal, di mana integriti halal tidak lagi dapat dipelihara. Terdapat kajian-kajian terdahulu yang telah membahaskan berkenaan dengan jenayah makanan, namun kebanyakannya tidak begitu membincangkan berkenaan dengan perspektif fiqh al-‘uqūbah (fiqh hukuman) di dalam Islam. Kajian ini dilaksanakan bagi membahaskan jenayah makanan dalam kerangka fiqh al-‘uqūbah. Bagi menjawab objektif kajian, kajian ini melibatkan pengumpulan data melalui kajian literatur dan dianalisis menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif. Berdasarkan dapatan kajian, terdapat dalil dari nas yang berkaitan dengan jenayah makanan di dalam Islam. Justeru, ia dapat dihubungkan melalui hukuman takzir berdasarkan fiqh al-‘uqūbah. Berdasarkan prinsip dalam jenayah Islam, jenayah makanan menepati rukun-rukun jenayah dalam Islam.

From a crime prevention perspective, food crime remains a challenge. Whilst opportunity for crime can be reduced by implementing situational measures and addressing the potential perpetrators, their possible actions and criminal behaviour, the trade-offs which occur in the food supply chain that motivate such activity still remains complex. These heuristic factors have led, in this study, to the consideration of “pinch-points” where crime could occur as a result of capability, opportunity, motivation, rationalisation and supply chain pressure. Pinch-points can be addressed using the Food Crime Countermeasures Framework conceptualised in this paper. We argue that conventional anti-fraud measures—detection, deterrence and prevention—are essential to support food fraud risk assessments, as are continuous interventions and response strategies. The implementation of countermeasures that initially drive prevention and deterrence and where required, detection, intervention and response form the basis of our approach. Whilst this paper focuses on the UK, however, it should recognise that food crime is a global issue.

Complexities in food supply chains were highlighted by the so called ‘horsegate’ crisis in 2013, where beef meat was fraudulently adulterated with horse meat causing widespread recalls and subsequent investigations across both retail and food service markets in the European Union (EU). The beef supply chain is a complex supply chain, with global (EU and Non EU) sourcing strategies in order to secure supply. However, managing these complex supply chains can be difficult and consequentially can expose vulnerabilities similar to that of horsemeat, where horsemeat was found in beef meat within EU supply chains. Six months after the crisis broke, an independent review into the integrity and assurance of food supply networks was commissioned by the UK government and undertaken by Professor Chris Elliott of Queen’s University, Belfast. The review recommended eight pillars of food integrity to industry and government: consumers first, zero tolerance, intelligence gathering, laboratory services, audit, government support, leadership and crisis management. This article examines the extent to which these recommendations have been implemented using personal communications from Professor Chris Elliott and relevant industry bodies. Following the review, industry attitudes have changed substantially, testing and surveillance systems have been integrated into normal industry practice and the government is more prepared for future incidents through the establishment of the National Food Crime Unit (NFCU). Horsegate raised the profile of food fraud and crime in supply chains and despite improvements to date, further collaboration between industry and government is required in order to align fully with the recommendations.

PurposeBusiness, consumers and governmental organisations are harbouring a growing need to gain an appreciation of behaviours connected to food criminality. In order to acquire a cross-functional understanding of these thematic areas (crime and fraud) the mapping of existing research is needed. The paper aims to discuss these issues.Design/methodology/approachThis paper contributes to the process of knowledge understanding, by systematically reviewing literature to provide an analysis of the current body of business knowledge against the thematic criterion of “supply chain food crime” and “supply chain food fraud”. The analysis derives themes from the literature and maps this across the eight pillars underpinning the UK Government paper on food supply chain resilience.FindingsA distinct gap lies with the eight pillars of food supply chain resilience, business interest into supply chain criminality and academic research into the field. There are noteworthy gaps when the literature is analysed to that of the UK Government report.Research limitations/implicationsThe limitation of the study was its focus on business-only journals; a plethora of literature resides in the science field (e.g. testing) that has not made its way to business text.Practical implicationsDrawing inference between business research and the government report, clear identification and tangible research areas can be immediately exploited to align cross-functional thinking.Social implicationsThe gap of consumer is not as yet addressed in this field, this research contributes originally to this gap and the need to address the same for societal benefit.Originality/valueThe paper concentrates on the metrics know to contribute to “food crime” and “food fraud” and deviating views of academic vs non-academic literature. In conclusion the paper identifies thematic areas for further research and presents a conceptual framework of food supply chain resilience.

Food crime: An often-ignored money laundering typology and a predicate crime

PurposeConsumer confidence in the European food industry has been shaken by a number of recent scandals due to food fraud and accidental contamination, reminding the authors that deliberate incidents can occur. Food defence methods aim to prevent or mitigate deliberate attacks on the food supply chain but are not a legal requirement. The purpose of this paper is to discuss how proactive and reactive food defence practices can help prevent or mitigate malicious attacks on the food chain and also food fraud, food crime and food safety. The authors look at how food defence differs from food safety and how it contributes to food supply chain integrity.Design/methodology/approachFood defence has been the focus of two different EU FP7 security projects, EDEN and SNIFFER. Food industry stakeholders participated in workshops and demonstrations on food defence and relevant technology was tested in different food production scenarios.FindingsFood industry end-users reported a lack of knowledge regarding food defence practices. They wished for further guidelines and training on risk assessment as well as access to validated test methods. Novel detection tools and methods showed promise with authentication, identification, measurement, assessment and control at multiple levels of the food supply chain prior to distribution and retail.Practical implicationsThe prevention of a contamination incident, prior to retail, costs less than dealing with a large foodborne disease outbreak. Food defence should therefore be integral to food supply chain integrity and not just an afterthought in the wake of an incident.Originality/valueIt is argued that food defence practices have a vital role to play across the board in unintentional and intentional food contamination incidents. The application of these methods can help ensure food supply chain integrity.

Background The Food Standards Agency’s (FSA) National Food Crime Unit (NFCU) identifies, analyses and responds to serious fraud and related criminality within food supply chains that affects the safety or the authenticity of food, drink and animal feed in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. This project aimed to guide the development of future interventions and governance arrangements to increase the volume and improve the quality of intelligence reported to the NFCU. Objectives and Approach Objectives of the literature review and stakeholder interviews were to: 1. Assess the current state of evidence regarding the characteristics and motivations of individuals and organisations that report criminal activity to law enforcement agencies. 2. Identify social, behavioural and institutional factors which help or hinder the reporting of intelligence regarding criminal activity to law enforcement agencies. 3. Identify best practice in facilitating the reporting of criminal intelligence to law enforcement agencies, and in the processing, governance and protection of sensitive information within intelligence reporting arrangements. 4. Examine and evaluate the implications, advantages and disadvantages of involving external intermediaries in facilitating the reporting of criminal intelligence to law enforcement agencies. Options for behavioural interventions to encourage food crime intelligence reporting to NFCU and its partner agencies were then explored. The research design for one of these options was developed, but efforts to implement were unsuccessful due to an insufficient sample willing to participate in the fieldwork. Findings Key barriers to food crime intelligence reporting include: • An evolving national culture that has progressed towards greater support for whistleblowing, yet remains unfavourable to external and informal reporting. • A legislative framework that strongly signals support for internal reporting, and provides no protection to those who would report externally at first because they may (rightly) feel that reporting internally would lead to no resolution of the wrongdoing and would rather lead to retaliation. • Limitations of some informal options for reporting intelligence externally, particularly reporting to the media and industry safe spaces. • An industry structure, culture and contracting practices that discourage external reporting, by diluting responsibilities across long supply chains, keeping participants in interdependent relationships, and normalising wrongdoing as ‘sharp practice’. • A workforce that is, in large part, characterised by low income, mixed cultural backgrounds, and job insecurity, and therefore is relatively less likely to report intelligence than the workforce one may find in other sectors.

The pandemic of COVID-19 has stricken the world economy significantly since its first outbreak. This also affected the Malaysian economy where many businesses have halted their operation due to the outbreak as well as movement restriction order (MCO) issued by the government. Nevertheless, the condition in Malaysia is seemingly improved since the vaccination programme set by the government has reached a 78.9% vaccination rate of the total population by the first quarter of the year 2022. Currently, the Malaysian government has now in the transition from the pandemic phase to endemic phase and relaxed the imposition of restrictions that were previously enforced. This allows business operation to regain their grip in the post COVID-19 era. Despite the fragility of the supply chain particularly within the halal ecosystem, a vital aspect that is almost neglected is the encroaching food crime incidents, and the food defence approach which encompasses the protection of food supply chain against intentional contamination is still on high alert. The incidence of meat cartel in late 2020 has warned that food crime is not seizing nor hindered its operation. Therefore, a robust approach needs to be addressed to defend the food supply chain, and more importantly the halal ecosystem. Therefore, this study is carried out to examine the future direction of food defence in the post COVID-19 era in Malaysia. This study utilizes library research to collect the data by using online databases such as Google Scholar, Emerald, Science Direct and SCOPUS. This study also presents strategies for reinforcing the integrity of the food supply chain against the threat of intentional contamination from the perspective of the halal ecosystem.

The current reality is that food supply chains are global, complex and sometimes opaque. They are also highly reactive, as regulatory, market, technical and social requirements keep evolving and sourcing links become increasingly fluid. In addition, the challenges that present risk to food products and food companies also shift. Some challenges are historic, for example, food safety and food crime, but others are new and contemporary. In the future, evidence suggests that the speed of change will accelerate even faster, requiring businesses to be more resilient and agile. This is the first in a series of planned articles and papers on the theme of risk management in food supply chains.

Food frauds, including the intentional adulteration or misrepresentation of a food product for financial gain, undermine the safety, reliability, and integrity of food supply chains and networks. Such practices compromise the quality and authenticity of food products, ultimately eroding consumer trust. In response, industry stakeholders increasingly turn to digital technologies such as the Internet of Things and blockchain. Developed for cryptocurrency, blockchain is a digital ledger that records transaction details at every stage of the supply chain, creating a permanent and immutable record with the aim of enhancing transparency and traceability. Despite its growing application in the food industry, the features, benefits, and challenges of blockchain technology have been largely overlooked in criminological research on food crimes, particularly food fraud. This article addresses this gap by assessing blockchain from a criminological perspective, which provides a foundation for examining crimes and harms related to food fraud that occur in organisational settings, as well as the supply networks that they are connected to. Using the UK as a conceptual starting point, we examine how and why agri-food companies implement blockchain. We highlight the technology’s supposed benefits, while also discussing its drawbacks, including environmental impacts, high implementation costs, and vulnerabilities that may allow criminals to circumvent the system. We argue that blockchain, while potentially valuable, is often used as a ’gimmick’ to reduce the challenges posed by food fraud, and so is limited when addressing the deeper-rooted, systemic issues within food supply networks that facilitate the perpetration of food frauds.

Food frauds, including the intentional adulteration or misrepresentation of a food product for financial gain, undermine the safety, reliability, and integrity of food supply chains and networks. Such practices compromise the quality and authenticity of food products, ultimately eroding consumer trust. In response, industry stakeholders increasingly turn to digital technologies such as the Internet of Things and blockchain. Developed for cryptocurrency, blockchain is a digital ledger that records transaction details at every stage of the supply chain, creating a permanent and immutable record with the aim of enhancing transparency and traceability. Despite its growing application in the food industry, the features, benefits, and challenges of blockchain technology have been largely overlooked in criminological research on food crimes, particularly food fraud. This article addresses this gap by assessing blockchain from a criminological perspective, which provides a foundation for examining crimes and harms related to food fraud that occur in organisational settings, as well as the supply networks that they are connected to. Using the UK as a conceptual starting point, we examine how and why agri-food companies implement blockchain. We highlight the technology’s supposed benefits, while also discussing its drawbacks, including environmental impacts, high implementation costs, and vulnerabilities that may allow criminals to circumvent the system. We argue that blockchain, while potentially valuable, is often used as a ’gimmick’ to reduce the challenges posed by food fraud, and so is limited when addressing the deeper-rooted, systemic issues within food supply networks that facilitate the perpetration of food frauds.

This article provides the first comprehensive criminological account of routinised illicit venison production in rural England. In doing so an epistemological reformulation and conceptual clarification of the overlooked problem is advanced, using extended fieldwork and a novel theoretical framework. The account of offending is refined to a type of illicit rural food enterprise supply chain misconduct, actualised by un-regulated industry processes. This kind of food crime is shown to be reliant upon suspects’ connectivity with small to medium food business operations and the routines of rural occupations. Such relations with licit rural-centric commerce are the necessary conditions of offending, which are enabled by the contingent conditions of sub-optimal game meat traceability systems and an absence of regulatory oversight at critical junctures. An outcome that is structurally inscribed into legislation and induces non-compliance. The article addresses the current lacuna of research on venison meat food crimes in the British context and advances an innovative realist social relations theory to explain the crime commissioning process.

When the horsemeat scandal hit the UK, there was an outcry about food safety and labelling. While it has subsequently become clear that health was not at risk, the Elliott review, published at the beginning of September, seeks to ensure that in the future, our food will be less easily adulterated.The Food Standards Agency1 defines food fraud as when 'food is deliberately placed on the market, for financial gain, with the intention of deceiving the consumer'. Food crime, according to the Elliott Review, 'no longer involves random acts by rogues within the food industry but becomes an organised activity by groups which knowingly set out to deceive, and/ or injure, those purchasing food'.2Research suggests that adulterated olive oil is the biggest agricultural fraud in the European Union. Products labelled italian extra virgin olive oil are frequently found to have originated in Tunisia or libya and may simply be ordinary olive oil coloured with green chlorophyll.3 it has been suggested that the profits from olive oil fraud are 'comparable to cocaine trafficking but with none of the risks'.4 it is estimated that 1,700tonnes of manuka honey are produced annually in New Zealand; however, 1,800tonnes are sold annually in the UK alone and around 10,000tonnes worldwide.5 The biggest food fraud in US history also involved honey - although, in this case, chinese honey - that was deliberately shipped through other Asian nations to disguise its origins and evade import duties.6Most worrying are cases when foods are tainted or mislabelled in a way that can result in direct consumer harm. in china, powdered milk has been affected at least twice: in 2005, 13 babies died after being fed powdered milk that had no nutritional value, and in 2008, almost 300,000 children fell ill and at least six died after milk powder was contaminated with melamine, a poisonous, industrial chemical used to boost protein levels.3An investigation in 2005 in ireland found that category 3 animal by-products were being repacked and re-labelled as fit for human consumption.7 category 3 products are not suitable for consumption - they may be parts of animals that we don't normally eat (hides, hair, feathers, bones) or they may be waste from food factories and retail premises. Although lower risk than category 1 and 2 by-products, if they enter the food chain, they have the potential to negatively affect public health (both causing physical harm and mental distress), not least because the products may not have been stored appropriately based on food safety requirements.in anticipation of the publication of the final Elliott review, the RSPH asked a representative sample of the UK public (n = 2,010) which issues most concerned them about food fraud. We found that almost three quarters (73%) of the public were either very concerned or concerned about the recycling of animal by-products back into the food chain, and an equal proportion (73%) had concerns about the packing and selling of beef and poultry with an unknown origin.While the opinion poll also shows that concern about food fraud is high irrespective of income group, the reality is that the poorest in society are likely to be disproportionately affected. …

Food fraud and associated criminalities pose significant challenges to market integrity, public health, and consumer confidence, with annual costs estimated at USD 10–15 billion globally. Recent literature outlines intricate relationships between criminal activities in the food industry and financial incentives (Rizzuti, 2022b), situating this sector both as a source for illicit proceeds and a conduit for money laundering (Milon & Zafarullah, 2023; Tiwari, 2023, 2024). This paper evaluates how emerging technologies, such as blockchain (Chuah, 2022) and generative artificial intelligence (GenAI), especially large language models (LLMs) (Clercq et al., 2024; Ma et al., 2024), could aid in deterring wrongdoing in the food sector. Utilising a structured literature review methodology, we analysed 31 studies employing Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) for topic modelling combined with Faff’s (2015) pitching research template for qualitative assessment, supplemented by bibliometric analysis of 517 publications. The quantitative assessment identified five distinct thematic categories: criminological perspectives, AI and explainable methods, blockchain and supply chain solutions, analytical detection methods, and biological authentication with emerging applications. Findings reveal that biological authentication mechanisms and blockchain technology dominate current research, while criminological perspective and explainable AI methods remain underrepresented. LLMs emerge as promising frontier for improving crime detection capabilities through analysing structured and unstructured data, while requiring stringent oversight owing to potential misuse. These technologies complement each other: blockchain facilitates supply chain transparency while LLMs analyse diverse data sources to identify illicit patterns. Despite implementation challenges including scalability and data quality concerns, this combination presents opportunities to address food authentication challenges, improve traceability, and detect indicators of money laundering. However, the analysis reveals a critical disconnect between technological focus and recognition of organized crime exploitation. The present work contributes systematically by evaluating how this technological combination can disrupt food crime as a money laundering typology.

The current study is an examination of increasing coverage of food crimes on media and its influence on the public. There are number of broadcasts, commentaries, articles and investigations that have surfaced on public platforms regarding the heinous individual and organized food crimes in Pakistan, literature about the food safety standards in Pakistan has also confirmed that the increasing safety violations have created an impact on public health. These investigative initiatives have created an impact on the audience about reevaluating their choices and decisions about the procurement of common to specialized food items and supplies. This study assesses a range of concepts related to food risk and safety perception amongst the audience with reference to the role and effectiveness of media. The media’s function is assessed in the broader framework of public service and social responsibility theories.