Sound Propagation in the Atmosphere

Abstract

Propagation of sound close to the ground outdoors involves geometric spreading, air absorption, interaction with the ground, barriers, vegetation and refraction associated with wind and temperature gradients. After a brief survey of historical aspects of the study of outdoor sound and its applications, this chapter details the physical principles associated with various propagation effects, reviews data that demonstrate them and methods for predicting them. The discussion is concerned primarily with the relatively short ranges and spectra of interest when predicting and assessing community noise rather than the frequencies and long ranges of concern, for example, in infrasonic global monitoring or used for remote sensing of the atmosphere. Specific phenomena that are discussed include spreading losses, atmospheric absorption, diffraction by barriers and buildings, interaction of sound with the ground (ground waves, surface waves, ground impedance associated with porosity and roughness, and elasticity effects), propagation through crops, shrubs and trees, wind and temperature gradient effects, shadow zones and incoherence due to atmospheric turbulence. The chapter concludes by suggesting a few areas that require further research.