Sound change and cross-linguistic influence among multilingual speakers: evidence from /n/-/l/ merger in Cantonese

In auditory perception, a right hemisphere (RH)/left ear advantage(LEA) for low-pass filtered stimuli and a left hemisphere (LH)/right ear advantage(REA) for high-pass filtered stimuli have been reported. Here we investigated how tonal language experience modulates this hemispheric asymmetry. We recruited Cantonese, Mandarin (tonal languages), and English (non-tonal language) speakers, and asked them to recognise dichotically presented Cantonese speech pairs in either high- or low-pass filtered conditions. The results showed that in perception accuracy, whereas English speakers demonstrated the typical RH/LEA for low-pass filtered stimuli and LH/REA for high-pass filtered stimuli, for both high- and low-pass filtered stimuli, Cantonese speakers had similarly high accuracy in the two ears, and Mandarin speakers had higher right ear accuracy. In addition, Cantonese speakers had a preference to report the stimulus presented to the right ear; Mandarin speakers showed a similar, insignificant trend of preference, whereas English speakers showed no preference. This result is consistent with the hypothesis of language-experience-dependent specialisation of the LH in auditory perception, in contrast to an experience-independent general auditory or linguistic mechanism. While English speakers showed the typical hemispheric asymmetry in auditory perception, the automaticity of LH language processing pathways in Cantonese speakers resulted in no accuracy difference between the two ears, and a right ear preference regardless of the frequency condition. In contrast, although Mandarin speakers did not understand Cantonese, they generalised their tonal language experience to Cantonese speech perception and had a REA even in the perception of low-pass filtered Cantonese speech.

International students studying at Australian universities are largely represented in the media as problematic speakers of English, in part due to the dominance of the monolingual mindset as an approach to language. This paper focuses instead on international students’ multilingualism and examines the multimodal media representation of them as multilingual speakers. This study presents a thematic language ideological analysis of an episode of an Australian current affairs television program,Four Corners, and social media discussion of the episode and explores the way language ideologies work in the context. It shows that multilingual practices and speakers are stigmatized through the textual and multimodal representation of languages other than English (LOTE). Findings show that the multilingualism of international students and competencies available through LOTE are largely rendered invisible and students are constructed through a ‘double deficit’ view. They are thus not seen as multilingual speakers but deficient English speakers and this deficiency indexes other deficits. Where LOTE becomes visible, it is represented as a problem. The results also show that the social media discussions further amplify the language ideologies of the episode. The implications are considered for media representation and for universities to shift the focus to English language as a medium of instruction only and end ‘language blindness’ for improved social inclusion.

This study investigates how Cantonese and Mandarin speakers use intonation to distinguish English declarative questions and statements as compared to the production by English native speakers. Results show that as English native speakers, EFL (English as a foreign language) learners vary pitch accent and boundary tone to distinguish English declarative questions and statements. However, speakers with different language backgrounds differ in their variation of sentence pitch range and the pitch range in the final word. English native speakers use the change of sentence pitch range and sentence-final word pitch range as cues for English declarative questions regardless of sentence length and the number of syllables (monosyllabic or trisyllabic) in the final word. Cantonese speakers' use of sentence pitch range is similar to that of native speakers, but they vary the pitch range of the final word to distinguish declarative questions and statements only when the sentences end with a trisyllabic word. By comparison, Mandarin speakers only vary sentence pitch range to distinguish declarative questions and statements when the sentences are comparatively short, and the pitch range of the final word when the word is monosyllabic. These results show that the production of English declarative questions by Cantonese and Mandarin speakers is influenced by their first or second language.

This study investigated the effects of linguistic experience on tone perception. Both Cantonese (in Experiment 1) and Mandarin (in Experiment 2) tones, including both lexical and nonlexical tones, were presented to three groups of subjects: Cantonese, Mandarin, and English native speakers. Subjects were asked to determine whether two auditorily presented tones were the same or different. The interval between the presentation of the two tones, and the level of interference during this interval, were manipulated. Native speakers did better at discriminating tones from their own languages than the other two groups of subjects, for both lexical and nonlexical tones. Subjects did worst when they were required to count backward during the interstimulus interval. Cantonese speakers were better than both Mandarin and English speakers at discriminating Cantonese tones, and there was no difference between Mandarin and English speakers, except in one condition. Mandarin speakers did better than both Cantonese and English speakers, and Cantonese speakers did better than English speakers, at discriminating Mandarin tones. Results are discussed in terms of the effects of language background, differences between Cantonese and Mandarin tones, and the nature of encoding in short-term memory.

The study examined the patterns of production and perception of L1 Cantonese and Mandarin speakers for English consonant-/l/ clusters in five consonant conditions (/ph, th, kh, f, s/) and three vowel conditions (/i, a, u/). Five Cantonese, 5 Mandarin, and 5 native English speakers were assigned to read aloud words in C[l]V and C[l]VC structure in carrier sentences. Results showed that Cantonese speakers’ /l/ was often reduced, indicated by a shorter average duration of the CV transition compared with native English speakers. However, Mandarin speakers showed a longer duration in the same measurement. Despite the identical segmental and syllable structures of these two languages in the involved words, realizations were different. Nevertheless, we found pitch patterns of Mandarin speech of L2 English featured falling tone, whereas Cantonese speakers utilized level tones. To further examine the tonal effect, we normalized the tone from the production results to a level tone at 200 Hz and presented them, together with productions with real inserted vowels in between C and /l/, to another group of Mandarin and Cantonese speakers to discriminate in an ABX paradigm. Mandarin speakers scored a significantly lower accuracy rate, indicating that their perception of duration was influenced by tone structure.

Most research in third language acquisition has focused on the effects that factors such as language distance, second language (L2) status, proficiency or recency have on the choice of the source language (L1) in cross-linguistic influence (CLI). This paper presents a study of these factors, and of the influence that the L1 (Spanish) has on L2 (English) and L3 (Catalan) oral production. Lexical and syntactic transfer are analysed in the production of Catalan and English of two multilingual speakers with similar knowledge of non-native languages. They were interviewed twice in an informal environment. The results show that the L1 is the main source of transfer, both in L2 and L3 production, but its influence decreases as proficiency in the target language increases. Language distance also plays an important role in CLI, especially if proficiency in the source language is high and if there has been recent exposure to it. The findings also suggest that while syntactic transfer is exclusively L1-based, lexical transfer can occur from a non-native language.
 Received: 16-11-2007 /Accepté: 11-02-2008
 How to reference this article:
 Ortega, Mireia. (2008). Cross-linguistic influence in multilingual language acquisition: The role of L1 and non-native languages in English and Catalan oral production. Íkala. 13(1), pp.121-142.

Chinese learners of English often experience interference from their native languages when pronouncing certain fricatives in English, particularly the post-alveolar fricative [ʃ]. This study investigates the acoustic features of the voiceless post-alveolar fricative [ʃ] produced by Mandarin Chinese learners, Cantonese learners, and native English speakers. The corpus comprises recordings of English words containing [ʃ] from 20 Mandarin Chinese speakers, 20 Cantonese speakers, and 20 native English speakers. Spectral moments of [ʃ]—centroid frequency, variance, skewness, and kurtosis—were extracted using Praat to capture key acoustic properties associated with fricative production. Linear Discriminant Analysis was employed to evaluate the distinctiveness of accented productions of [ʃ] and to classify differences between Mandarin- and Cantonese-accented [ʃ] relative to native English [ʃ]. Results reveal that transfer from native languages significantly influenced [ʃ] production: Mandarin speakers’ production of [ʃ] in English resembled Mandarin retroflex [ʂ], while Cantonese speakers’ [ʃ] in English showed features of Cantonese [s]. Spectral parameter analysis indicated that Mandarin-accented [ʃ] was acoustically closer to native English [ʃ] than Cantonese-accented [ʃ]. These findings provide empirical evidence on the influence of L1 phonetic transfer on English fricative production and underscore the need for targeted pronunciation instruction tailored to specific L1 backgrounds.

Benefits of intensive speech treatment have been documented for a range of speech signs in English speakers with Parkinson's Disease (PD). However, the answer to a critical question that whether the same treatment benefits speech variables including intelligibility in Mandarin speakers is still unclear. In order to develop a targeted speech treatment for Mandarin speakers with PD, we reviewed the efficacy of intensive speech treatment to improve vocal loudness and functional communication and discuss possible explanations for efficacy on Mandarin speakers with PD. Literatures about intensive speech treatment for Mandarin speakers with PD were retrieved from PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang and Weipu Database for Chinese Technical Periodicals (VIP) Database. Search strategy was (voice therapy OR speech therapy OR voice treatment OR speech treatment OR voice training OR speech training OR voice rehabilitation OR speech rehabilitation OR Lee Silverman voice treatment OR intensive speech treatment) and (Parkinson's disease) and (Mandarin speakers OR Chinese OR Chinese people). Five randomized controlled trials were selected and possible explanations for efficacy on individuals with PD are discussed. Further research directions are suggested. The existing evidence from treatment efficacy studies of intensive speech treatment provides support for improving vocal loudness, speech intelligibility, pitch and rate in Mandarin speakers with PD. Our future research will continue to work to conduct a large sample multicenter randomized controlled trial to provide high quality evidence and understand the basic mechanisms accompanying treatment-related change.

While previous research has shown that bilinguals are able to effectively maintain two sets of phonetic norms, these two phonetic systems experience varying degrees of cross-linguistic influence, driven by both long-term (e.g., proficiency, immersion) and short-term (e.g., bilingual language contexts, code-switching, sociolinguistic) factors. This study examines the potential for linguistic environment, or the language norms of the broader community in which an interaction takes place, to serve as a source of short-term cross-linguistic phonetic influence. To investigate the role of linguistic environment, late bilinguals (L1 English—L2 Spanish) produced Spanish utterances in two sessions that differed in their linguistic environments: an English-dominant linguistic environment (Indiana, USA) and a Spanish-dominant linguistic environment (Madrid, Spain). Productions were analyzed at the fine-grained acoustic level, through an acoustic analysis of voice onset time, as well as more holistically through native speaker global accent ratings. Results showed that linguistic environment did not significantly impact either measure of phonetic production, regardless of a speaker’s second language proficiency. These results, in conjunction with previous results on long- and short-term sources of phonetic influence, suggest a possible primacy of the immediate context of an interaction, rather than broader community norms, in determining language mode and cross-linguistic influence.

Production of certain English phonemes relies heavily on effort from the abdominal region, and under-utilization of this region by second language English speakers can create difficulties pronouncing these sounds. In particular, production of long vowel/diphthong sounds requires sustained abdominal contraction to maintain the length of these phonemes, and production of voiced fricative consonants requires a sharp burst of abdominal effort to expel air from the lungs to adequately voice the consonant. Both Cantonese and Mandarin speakers have particular problems producing these phonemes, and this study compared how instruction in the abdominal techniques effected production of these sounds by these two learner groups. The study focused on the vowel and diphthong sounds, /iː/, /uː/ and /eɪ/, and the voiced fricative consonants, /z/,/ð/, /v/ and /ʒ/. A previous study by the author had found the abdominal techniques improved Chinese learners’ production of these phonemes. The learners in that study were evenly divided between Mandarin and Cantonese speakers, and this study reanalysed the data to examine which speaker group benefited more from these abdominal techniques. Results showed that the Mandarin speakers were the major beneficiaries of the techniques. Importantly, the study also explored, in depth, likely reasons for this.

English and Mandarin Speakers May Think about Time Differently, but for a Different Reason Jenn-Yeu Chen Department of Psychology, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan Bishan Liang Department of Psychology, South-China Normal University, China Padraig G. O’Seaghdha Department of Psychology, Lehigh University, USA Xishan Huang Department of Psychology, South-China Normal University, China Abstract: Do English and Mandarin speakers think about time differently? Boroditsky (2001) claimed they do, but the claim did not stand in three failed replications (Chen, 2007; January & Kako, 2007; Tse & Altarriba, 2008). Recently she and her colleagues reported data from a different task to support the claim (Boroditsky, Fuhrman, & McCormick, 2010). We repeated their study with English speakers in US, Mandarin speakers in Taiwan and Mandarin speakers in China. The Mandarin speakers in Taiwan showed an opposite pattern of results than the English speakers, but the Mandarin speakers in China performed similarly to the English speakers. These results are interpreted as reflecting differences in orthographic directionality adopted in different linguistic communities, uniformly horizontal in US and China, but horizontal mixed with vertical in Taiwan. English and Mandarin speakers may think about time differently, but not because of the different metaphorical usages in the languages.

As multilingualism becomes increasingly prevalent in globalized societies, understanding the cognitive and linguistic mechanisms underpinning language acquisition is essential. This study explores cross – linguistic influence (CLI) in multilingual learners from a theoretical perspective, emphasizing its implications for linguistic theory and educational practice. Drawing upon key frameworks such as Dynamic Systems Theory, the Scalpel Model, and Multicompetence, the paper critically examines how CLI operates across multiple linguistic domains and within complex learner ecologies. Particular attention is paid to factors mediating CLI – such as language typology, proficiency, language dominance, and acquisition context – and how these factors shape multilingual development in both predictable and variable ways. The article argues for a reconceptualization of CLI not as a source of interference, but as a fundamental aspect of multilingual competence that reflects the dynamic interconnectivity of linguistic systems. The findings support a shift away from monolingual instructional models toward pedagogies that recognize and leverage the linguistic resources of multilingual learners. This theoretical inquiry lays the groundwork for future empirical research and provides valuable insights for linguistic, educators, and policymakers in the multilingual education landscape. CLI should be seen not as a hindrance but as a valuable resource, offering multilingual learners cognitive flexibility and enhanced language proficiency

The present study investigated the impact of Chinese dialects on McGurk effect using behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) methodologies. Specifically, intra-language comparison of McGurk effect was conducted between Mandarin and Cantonese speakers. The behavioral results showed that Cantonese speakers exhibited a stronger McGurk effect in audiovisual speech perception compared to Mandarin speakers, although both groups performed equally in the auditory and visual conditions. ERP results revealed that Cantonese speakers were more sensitive to visual cues than Mandarin speakers, though this was not the case for the auditory cues. Taken together, the current findings suggest that the McGurk effect generated by Chinese speakers is mainly influenced by segmental phonology during audiovisual speech integration.

Do English and Mandarin Speakers Think Differently About Time?

The fact that learners of a new language often already have experience of one or more other non-native languages has come into focus with the growing interest in multilingualism as a linguistic phenomenon and multilingual education as a practical concern. Third language or L3 has become a regular term fairly recently in dealing with the complex constellations of languages that occur with multilingual speakers and exploring the roles of these languages in the acquisition process. The purpose of the present chapter is to examine and discuss the construct of L3 in the context of the individual speaker’s multilingual repertoire and language learning. I first touch upon the wide occurrence of bi- and multilingualism in the world of today, especially as promoted by globalization and modern communication technology, and individual multilingualism (plurilingualism) as the normal form of linguistic competence that develops in human speakers. I then discuss the speaker/learner’s linguistic repertoire as a dynamic complex system, as well as the mutual connection between the developing repertoire and the process of language use and acquisition in specific situations in time. What we mean by L3 is seldom reflected on in the literature on so-called third language acquisition (TLA). In defining L3, we should ask what kind of concept we need in order to represent a speaker’s non-first non-native language. It should be a concept which is cognitively grounded and compatible with the terms L1 and L2 as these are commonly used in SLA studies. This leads to a definition of L3 and a discussion of its cognitive role as “tertiary” in relation to pre-existing L1s and L2s. Cross-linguistic influence becomes more complex when more background languages than a single L1 are involved, since both L1s and L2s can become activated in the process. Recent literature has explored a range of factors that may determine which language will dominate as source language when acquiring an L3, and formed conflicting hypotheses regarding their relative strength. I examine some problems that are reflected in this research, including the “L2 status issue”. This has implications for understanding the potential benefit of a multilingual language background in language learning.