Soil and the intensification of agriculture for global food security

Soils are the most diverse and complex ecosystem in the world. In addition to providing humanity with 98.8% of its food, soils provide a broad range of other services, from carbon storage and greenhouse gas regulation, to flood mitigation and providing support for our sprawling cities. Therefore, protection of soil health from various pollutants including pesticides is important for its future sustenance. The pesticide Pymetrozine widely used in rice fields for the control of aphids and whiteflies is also registered in India for crop protection in Paddy. This study aimed to examine how long the pesticide Pymetrozine persists and how it breaks down in different types of soil in West Bengal. This research was conducted through laboratory experiments using LC-MS/MS at Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Nadia. Applied two doses of Pymetrozine and analyzed soil samples over 30 days. Pymetrozine levels decreased by 95-97% after 15 days and fell below detectable levels after 30 days. Dissipation followed first-order kinetics, with a faster rate in new alluvial soil compared to red lateritic soil. This difference could be due to variations in soil properties, like organic carbon content and water retention.

A Fiduciary Duty to Minimize the Corporation’s Environmental Impacts

Ecosystem diversity, species richness and genetic diversity are the three major facets of biodiversity which deserve equal attention for conservation. However, genetic diversity is significant in identification of unique populations for conservation purpose. Aspects of DNA barcoding, loss of genetic diversity in cryptic species and examples of molecular phylogenetic and molecular phylogeographic studies on aquatic insects of headwaters from major biogeographic realms are briefly reviewed in the light of prioritization of taxa and habitats for conservation. Special emphasis is laid on identification of evolutionary significant units for effective conservation in the context of global climate change. Current methodologies for identifying potential loss of intraspecific genetic diversity are also highlighted with suggestions on future research priorities.

Soil organic matter (SOM) in wetland soils, including peatlands, is crucial for maintaining ecosystem functions such as water quality, biogeochemical cycles, and regulating greenhouse gas emissions. Water-extractable organic matter (WEOM) comprises molecular compounds that dissolve in water under natural conditions. However, molecular-level studies of WEOM across wetlands in different climates and under various agricultural use intensities remain limited. We employed ultrahigh-resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometry to analyse WEOM and integrated it with data on climate types, agricultural intensities, environmental characteristics, molecular groups, microbial functional genes, and field-measured ecosystem respiration, methane and nitrous oxide fluxes. Wetland soil samples were collected from 25 regions representing four agricultural intensities: (1) no agriculture, (2) non-intensive grassland, (3) intensive grassland, and (4) arable land. Orbitrap identified 14,890 molecular formulas with masses ranging from 100 to 950 Daltons. Correlations between agricultural intensities and formula classes containing N, S, or P was visualised using Van Krevelen diagrams. We further examined the influence of climate types (tropical, temperate, continental) and agricultural intensity on WEOM molecular composition by Principal Coordinates Analysis, and linked WEOM quality changes with gas fluxes and other available environmental and microbiome characteristics. Ecosystem respiration, nitrous oxide emission, and agricultural intensity were positively correlated with the persistence of WEOM (i.e., aromaticity vs. aliphaticity) and negatively correlated with soil water content. Diversity of bacteria and archaea, as well as methane emission, were positively correlated with soil pH, but unrelated to WEOM quality. Our findings provide new insights into how WEOM chemistry changes under varying environmental and management conditions and advance our understanding of its role in global carbon and nutrient cycling.Keywords: Wetland, WEOM, GHG emissions, Orbitrap, climate, agricultural intensity

Agriculture intensification is increasing due to food demand and consumption patterns. Intensive agriculture is based on management that promotes the maximum profit per unit of area and involves agrochemicals, irrigation and heavy machinery. The purpose is to have high crop yields and livestock productivity. This practice's implications are increasing soil degradation and the loss of ecological functions and consequently to the detriment of ecosystem condition and services. Intensive agriculture practices are related to high erosion rates, soil compaction, pollution (e.g., pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals, pharmaceuticals), nitrification and acidification, loss of fertility and productivity, desertification, diffuse pollution, ground and surface water contamination, land fragmentation, loss of biodiversity, greenhouse gases emission, air pollution and ultimately human impact. All these effects contribute dramatically to global environmental change. Soils are the base of life. Therefore, such intensive use will induce rapid degradation. This is a global reality. Shreds of evidence from the world are plentiful: Tropical rainforests destruction in Amazonia, Congo Basin and southeast Asia due to the establishment of agriculture plantations or livestock farms, irrigation in semi-arid or arid areas of central Asia and Saudi Arabia and acidification in Northeast Europe. All these forms of soil degradation have negative implications on soil ecosystem services. For instance, agriculture intensification affects multiple regulating ecosystem services. The soil loses the capacity to regulate erosion, floods, water purification, and carbon storage, contribute to microclimate regulation, and combat pests and diseases. It also hampers the soil's capacity to supply fodder, water, wild food and medicinal plants. Although crop yields may increase, intensive agriculture practices are not sustainable since they contribute to soil degradation. Without any intervention (e.g., fertilization), there will be a loss of fertility, and yields may be reduced. Also, diffuse pollution from agriculture contributes to surface water bodies' loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. These areas are also key for food provisioning. Intensive agriculture also dramatically impacts cultural ecosystem services such as landscape aesthetics, recreation and heritage. We have many challenges ahead regarding the impacts of agriculture intensification, and it is key to halt and reduce their impacts on ecosystem services. We live in challenging times when food security needs to be ensured for a growing global population. How we can balance between food production and soil degradation? What practices are more adjusted in each context to ensure the sustainability of agroecosystems? These are key questions that need to be answered. Bottom line is that we need to develop practices to follow a sustainable path, instead of exhausting the ecosystems and their services at a dramatic pace.         AcknowledgementsWe would like to acknowledge the support of the project Enhancing ecoSysteM sERvices mApping for poLicy and Decision mAking (SELINA), financed by the European Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 101060415.

Anthropogenic activities, such as agricultural intensification, caused large declines in biodiversity, including farmland birds. In addition to demographic consequences, anthropogenic activities can result in loss of genetic diversity, reduction of gene flow and altered genetic structure. We investigated the distribution of the genetic variation of a declining farmland and long-distance migratory bird, the ortolan bunting Emberiza hortulana, across its European breeding range to assess the impact of human-driven population declines on genetic diversity and structure in order to advise conservation priorities. The large population declines observed have not resulted in dramatic loss of genetic diversity, which is moderate to high and constant across all sampled breeding sites. Extensive gene flow occurs across the breeding range, even across a migratory divide, which contributes little to genetic structuring. However, gene flow is asymmetric, with the large eastern populations acting as source populations for the smaller western ones. Furthermore, breeding populations that underwent the largest declines, in Fennoscandia and Baltic countries, appear to be recently isolated, with no gene exchange occurring with the eastern or the western populations. These are signs for concern as declines in the eastern populations could affect the strength of gene flow and in turn affect the western populations. The genetic, and demographic, isolation of the northern populations make them particularly sensitive to loss of genetic diversity and to extinction as no immigration is occurring to counter-act the drastic declines. In such a situation, conservation efforts are needed across the whole breeding range: in particular, protecting the eastern populations due to their key role in maintaining gene flow across the range, and focussing on the northern populations due to their recent isolation and endangered status.

This chapter represents the status of land degradation in Greece. As everywhere in the Mediterranean region, processes such as climatic change, extreme climatic events, and human actions accelerate land degradation and desertification and are reflected by the reduction of the capacity of the land to maintain its economic, ecological and productive functions. The main land degradation processes operating in the soil, water and biosphere system, cause soil degradation, water scarcity and decline of biodiversity. Greek soils are degradated by water and wind erosion, soil organic matter reduction, salinization, alkalization, fertility depletion, compaction, crusting, acidification, leaching, soil pollution and contamination, floods, landslides and sealing. Water scarcity and quality deterioration is exacerbated through continuing overexploitation of surface and ground water, poor management practices, pollution from point and diffuse sources and salinization through seawater intrusion. Land use change, wild fires, overgrazing, intensification of agriculture, and monoculture affect population dynamics and biodiversity while accelerating soil and water degradation processes and greenhouse gases emissions. The National Action Plan to Combat Desertification, the National Water Management plan, the Code of Good Agricultural Practices and the Soil Thematic Strategy in combination with international scientific cooperation and the creation of an harmonized monitoring system should provide to all stakeholders, especially to policy makers, the necessary knowledge, structure and measures to mitigate land degradation.

<p>Land-use changes are one of the most critical drivers of change. Territorial dynamics such as urbanization, agriculture intensification and land abandonment have important implications for ecosystems and the services supplied. This work aims to overview the impacts of land-use changes on ecosystem services supply (ES). Urbanization and agriculture intensification have detrimental impacts in all regulating ES (e.g., air quality, microclimate regulation, flood regulation, carbon storage). On the other hand, the afforestation process positively impacts all the ES abovementioned. Urbanization and land consumption reduce agriculture and natural areas, key for food supply. Therefore, provisioning ES (e.g., food, fodder, water, timber) are drastically affected. Agriculture intensification may short term positive impacts on food production. However, it occurs at the expense of high soil degradation, reducing the ecosystem capacity to supply wild food, water, fodder and medicinal plants. The land abandonment process implies a decrease in the cultivable area. Therefore, it reduces the capacity of food production. Also, water supply is reduced since the afforestation process increases water consumption and evapotranspiration. However, other benefits for provisioning ES occur from soil degradation, such as increasing wild food, medicinal plants, and timber. Finally, urbanization negatively impacts most cultural ES (e.g., natural heritage, cultural heritage, landscape aesthetics). Some benefits can be positive for recreation or knowledge systems. Except for knowledge systems, agriculture intensification negatively impacts all cultural ES (e.g., recreation, natural heritage, cultural heritage, landscape aesthetics). Land abandonment has detrimental impacts on cultural heritage (e.g., loss of traditional landscapes). However, it positively impacts all other cultural ES (e.g., recreation, landscape aesthetics, knowledge systems).</p><p>Keywords: Land use, ecosystem services, afforestation, soil degradation     </p><p><strong>Acknowledgements</strong></p><p>This work is supported by the project A09.3.3-LMT-K-712-01-0104 Lithuanian National Ecosystem Services Assessment and Mapping (LINESAM) funded by the European Social Fund according to the activity “Improvement of researchers” qualification by implementing world-class R&D projects.</p>

This article reviewed on agricultural intensification from livelihood and environment perspectives in mid-hills of Nepal. Agricultural intensification has provided improved economy, food security, employment opportunities, decision-making, labor division, local institutions and leaderships. But soil degradation has been accelerated along with greenhouse gases emission. Additionally, the potential linkages of agricultural intensification to degradation and pathways for marginalization in the long run are addressed. However, the catalytic role of institution and farmers' perception on intensification are equally important. To ensure socio-economically and environmentally sound production, sustainable agricultural intensification guided by good institutional systems is recommended.Key words: Agricultural intensification; Greenhouse gases; Institution; Livelihood; Soil degradationThe Journal of AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT Vol. 11, 2010Page: 83-94Uploaded date: 16 September, 2010

Aim There is a dearth of evidence that determines the genetic diversity of populations contained within present‐day protected areas compared with their historical state prior to large‐scale species declines, making inferences about a species’ conservation genetic status difficult to assess. The aim of this paper was to demonstrate the use of historical specimens to assess the change in genetic diversity over a defined spatial area. Location Like many other species, African lion populations ( Panthera leo ) are undergoing dramatic contractions in range and declines in numbers, motivating the identification of a number of lion‐conservation strongholds across East and southern Africa. We focus on one such stronghold, the Kavango–Zambezi transfrontier conservation area (KAZA) of Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Methods We compare genetic diversity between historical museum specimens, collected during the late 19th and early 20th century, with samples from the modern extant population. We use 16 microsatellite markers and sequence 337 base pairs of the hypervariable control region (HVR1) of the mitochondrial genome. We use bootstrap resampling to allow for comparisons between the historical and modern data. Results We show that the genetic diversity of the modern population was reduced by 12%–17%, with a reduction in allelic diversity of approximately 15%, compared to historical populations, in addition to having lost a number of mitochondrial haplotypes. We also identify a number of “ghost alleles” in the historical samples which are no longer present in the extant population. Main Conclusions We argue a rapid decline in allelic richness after 1895 suggests the erosion of genetic diversity coincides with the rise of a European colonial presence and the outbreak of rinderpest in the region. Our results support the need to improved connectivity between protected areas in order to prevent further loss of genetic diversity in the region.

This study contributes to the quest for sustainable agricultural intensification through the development of a quantitative bio-economic modelling framework that allows assessment of new technology and policy measures in terms of household welfare and sustainability indicators. The main aim of the study is the development of a farm household model to aid policy dialogues. The study consists of three parts. The first part is a general introduction into the context of the research, a justification of the approach and a general description of issues underlying the modelling framework. The second part explains the methodological details of the modelling framework. The third part contains some applications of the approach to specific questions related to agricultural intensification in the Cercle de Koutiala in southern Mali.The bio-economic model developed in this study combines elements from different existing methodologies into a flexible framework that is able to capture the peculiarities of household agriculture in West Africa. The methodology is sufficiently general to be applied in other settings as well, and contains a number of innovations, viz. a direct utility function, a robust goal weighting procedure and the use of metamodelling to analyse mathematical programming outcomes.Part 1Soil degradation is regarded as a serious problem threatening the livelihoods of present and future generations in West Africa. To bring soil degradation to a halt, a combination of appropriate technology and an enabling policy environment is needed (Chapter 1). To assess new technology and policy measures, information from biophysical and socio-economic disciplines are combined into a quantitative framework.Over the past decade a number of quantitative studies have been conducted that aim at combining biophysical and socio-economic information in such a way that the results are relevant for both social and biophysical sciences. These approaches are termed bio-economic modelling. A review of the methodologies (Chapter 2) reveals that none of them are able to tackle simultaneously the analysis of the causes and effects of soil degradation in combination with household decision making to assess the effects of policy change. The studies do however provide valuable building blocks for the present methodology.A framework to characterise the bio-economic models according to the spatial and temporal scales assists in finding appropriate methods for different research questions. Two critical issues emerge from the review. The first concerns the choice of objective function in economic models. The second refers to the interface between economic behaviour and biophysical processes.This critical interface between biophysical processes and economic behaviour is wrought with difficulties due to differences in scientific paradigms (Chapter 3). Biophysical sciences use the concept of efficiency in the analysis of technology options. The concept differs from the way economists use it. As a result there is a disparity between the way biophysical scientists and economists view production and damage functions. Whereas economists tend to use well-behaved continuous Cobb-Douglas production functions, biophysical scientists describe production activities in terms of the outcomes of biophysical processes, which more often than not yield nasty functions. This is due to the synergistic effects of inputs and the interrelations between causes and effects of soil degradation.The implications for bio-economic modelling are that Leontief production functions best describe the biophysical processes. Biophysical modelling frameworks exist that generate point data for this type of production function. One such framework, the technical coefficient generator (TCG) is used for generating the biophysical information needed in the household model.Part 2The household model is based on the standard theoretical model of a farm household (Chapter 4). The theoretical model although developed for econometric estimation is difficult to implement in such a way, due to the existence of failures and imperfections in commodity and input markets, the occurrence of risk, data limitations and the complexities in the production functions. As a result a complex non-separable household model is needed, which in turn cannot be estimated econometrically.Instead of estimating a full econometric model the present methodology proposes an alternative through the use of mathematical programming models that have been parameterised with partial econometric studies and expert knowledge. The basic structure of this bio-economic model consists of six separate modules. The production activities module describes the biophysical processes and their interrelationships using information generated by the TCG. Different technological options are defined in terms of input-output combinations for both current agricultural practices and alternative technologies. The price module includes information on factor and commodity markets. Price bands are used to describe market imperfections and results from the household models in terms of aggregate supply are used to calculate new market-clearing prices.A separate module describes different household types in terms of their resource endowments, real time preference and savings capacity. The savings capacity is linked to a savings and investment module that describes consumption smoothing and investment behaviour. Investment in soil conservation measures is one way of halting ongoing soil degradation.The expenditure module warrants separate mention (Chapter 6). The use of non-separable farm household models implies that consumption and production decisions are considered simultaneously. As a result the commonly used profit maximisation objective function cannot be used. Instead a utility function is used that describes household preferences for consumables. The direct utility function is estimated econometrically from a cross-sectional budget survey that is considered the revealed preference generated by an underlying utility function.The study develops a procedure to derive such a utility function. Because direct measurement of utility is impossible careful procedures are needed to test if the derived function is statistically robust. Next to consumption households also consider soil degradation in their decision making. The consequence is that multiple objectives have to be considered and a procedure is needed to combine those objectives (Chapter 5). The study presents a methodology for estimating the weights of different household objectives by comparing simulation model results with empirical evidence. To obtain statistically robust results maximum entropy econometrics is used.Part 3Application of the modelling framework to the case study area of Cercle de Koutiala in southern Mali is done for specific research questions. The first question concerns the validity of the model itself (Chapter 7). The model generates a base run that is consistent with empirical evidence. Applying sensitivity analysis to key parameters, analysing the near-optimal solution space and by applying the model to a separate data-set tests the robustness of those results. The model turns out to be robust for the most important variables while insight is gained into those areas for which the model does not give adequate answers.The model is also used to analyse new technology (Chapter 8). New technologies were chosen on biophysical grounds. Using partial budget analysis a first indication of the possibilities of the new technology is obtained. The approach is too partial to capture farm household goals and aspirations nor the resource constraints they face. Bio-economic model results indicate that most of the alternative technologies that seemed promising from a biophysical point of view do not fit well into the production systems of farm households in Cercle de Koutiala. A metamodelling approach is used to analyse the outcomes of the farm household model for a large number of variations in key exogenous parameters, thus obtaining fluid response surfaces.The model is also used to assess the possibilities of using policy instruments to create an enabling environment to induce farm households to adopt more sustainable technologies (Chapter 9). Two key instruments that figure in the forefront of policy debates in West Africa are analysed, viz. fertiliser price subsidies and infra-structural development resulting in lower transaction costs. Model results analysed in a metamodelling framework indicate that although the direction of the change in both income and soil organic matter balance is as would be expected, viz. simultaneous improvement of household-welfare and agro-ecological sustainability indicators, the magnitude of the improvements is limited. The policy measures in combination with the available new technologies are effective but not efficient.

The primary cause of soil degradation in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is expansion and intensification of agriculture in efforts to feed its growing population. Effective solutions will support resilient systems, and must cut across agricultural, environmental, and socioeconomic objectives. While many studies compare and contrast the effects of different management practices on soil properties, soil degradation can only be evaluated within a specific temporal and spatial context using multiple indicators. The extent and rate of soil degradation in SSA is still under debate as there are no reliable data, just gross estimates. Nevertheless, certain soils are losing their ability to provide food and essential ecosystem services, and we know that soil fertility depletion is the primary cause. We synthesize data from studies that examined degradation in SSA at broad spatial and temporal scales and quantified multiple soil degradation indicators, and we found clear indications of degradation across multiple indicators. However, different indicators have different trajectories—pH and cation exchange capacity tend to decline linearly, and soil organic carbon and yields non-linearly. Future research should focus on how soil degradation in SSA leads to changes in ecosystem services, and how to manage these soils now and in the future.

Animal wastes (AWs) are excreta or discarded materials associated with animal production industries. It could be in solid, liquid, or gaseous form, such as animal dung or droppings, discarded feed, feathers, fur, decayed bodies of dead animals, blood waste, effluent from animal farms, milk wastes, urine, and fart. Animal wastes are generated in high quantity, even beyond the control of animal farmers, due to the increase in animal production globally. These wastes pollute the ecosystem. They release greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), and nitrous oxide (N2O) into the atmosphere through anaerobic fermentation which deplete ozone layer. Nitrogen and phosphorus constituents of Aws alter soil texture and pollute water bodies through run-off and direct disposal into water systems. The resultant effects of the pollution include climate change, degradation of soil and burning of crops, death of aquatic biota, release of offensive odour, especially ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen sulphide (H2S), and cause diseases of public health concern to human beings and animals. These consequences are due to the emission of harmful gases and compounds and the presence of pathogens in the waste. Animal wastes are potential sources of income and resources, and their environmental consequences could be reduced if farmers could use innovative approaches such as vermicomposting, production of biogas using wastes, membrane filtration, liquid – solid separation, thermal treatment and chemical treatment approaches to manage animal wastes. Government regulation and policies against indiscriminate disposal and application of animal wastes, coupled with the sensitization of people to the benefits and dangers associated with animal waste, could also prevent environmental challenges.

Sustainable development in small island developing states: Agricultural intensification, economic development, and freshwater resources management on the coral atoll of Tongatapu

Since the mid-1980s, agriculture in South America has intensified and expanded significantly. For example, Brazilian census data show that cultivated land increased by 80% between 1996 and 2006, mainly in ecologically fragile areas (e.g., the Amazon, Cerrado, and Pampa). While agriculture plays a critical role in the socio-economic life of South America's agricultural regions, it also has negative environmental impacts, including land-use change, biodiversity loss, soil erosion and agrochemical contamination. To mitigate the negative effects of accelerated sediment transport, conservation practices such as no-tillage were adopted in the 2000s. Despite the advantage of not tilling the soil, the no-till system has a significant potential for soil and water degradation, both because of the high amount of inputs (pesticides and nutrients) added to the soil surface and because of the susceptibility to surface runoff formation and related processes.Agricultural expansion and intensification are expected to continue in South America in the coming decades to meet growing food demand. However, the long-term (>40 years) responses of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems to these anthropogenic pressures and conservation practices remain poorly documented due to a lack of multi-decadal monitoring stations or field measurements. Sedimentary archives collected in rivers and lakes draining South American regions affected by this agricultural expansion/intensification provide a unique opportunity to reconstruct the magnitude of these environmental impacts. In this study, we propose a synthesis of sedimentary archives published in Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, with a focus on the post-1950 period. These studies, which report on sediment dynamics and sediment characteristics (such as organic matter, phosphorus, accumulation rate), will be used to reconstruct the regional trajectory of terrestrial and aquatic ecological degradation related to these increasing human pressures. These trajectories will be compared with existing data on land use change, agricultural inputs, etc. to understand the response of the system to these perturbations and to better anticipate potential future degradation in line with expected trends in the coming years.