SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS AND LINGUISTIC RISKS IN ONLINE ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING: A PAKISTANI PERSPECTIVE

It is widely assumed among academicians that the COVID-19 pandemic has negative implications for the education of school students. However, institutions tried to balance that limitation by using online education, and there exist some inequalities among students. Most of the studies conducted during COVID-19 on online education focused on urban school students and their access to online education. In particular, rural school students and their online education remain an open question. Twenty in-depth interviews with rural student respondents determine the fundamental problems and challenge the rural school students’ face in online education during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. The study identifies six major problems of rural students: inadequate technology, unacquainted academic atmosphere, digital disconnect, physical well-being, the distractions inherent with the medium, and digital illiteracy. The identified constraints draw inferences to a critical concept in online learning that is digital inequality. Digital inequality refers to the disparity in the access, distribution of technology, information because of various socio-economic and cultural factors. The study also discusses the suggestions of rural students regarding the betterment of online education. The recommendations from the rural students include providing appropriate technological infrastructure, facilitating technical assistance and providing a convenient academic atmosphere. The suggestions are pointing towards the idea of digital inclusion that is vital in online education. Digital inclusion is defined as the ability of individuals or groups of people to access and use information and communication technologies. It is not only about access in a broader sense the opportunities of using innovative hardware and software technology, content and services, getting proper digital literacy pieces of training and the effective use of these services. The findings of the study will help to bridge the disparities in online education. These findings will help the academic community to identify the needs of rural children. It will help build infrastructure for online learning and give extensive support to the school children of rural communities. These findings are also vital for the communication scholars as the disparity in the distribution of information and knowledge is a prime concern for them.

<b><i>Problem Domain</i>:</b> This chapter discusses the challenges and gaps in the evidencebased mental healthcare counseling system in Pakistan. Despite growing recognition of mental healthcare in the country, significant hurdles impede the effective provision of evidence-based psychotherapies and counseling services. These obstacles include limited resources, inadequate infrastructure, and cultural stigmatization surrounding mental health, which collectively hinder access to quality mental healthcare interventions for Pakistani individuals. Furthermore, there is a notable lack of awareness and understanding of evidence-based practices among mental health professionals and policymakers, exacerbating the disparities in mental healthcare access and quality across the country. <b><i>Goal of this Chapter</i>:</b> The sixth chapter specifically focuses on discussing the important aspects of evidence-based mental healthcare counseling systems and the effectiveness of evidence-based psychotherapies in Pakistan. By providing insights into the complex dynamics of the Pakistani mental healthcare system, this chapter aims to educate readers on the challenges and opportunities in improving mental healthcare delivery in the country. <b><i>Selling Points and Contributions of this Chapter</i>:</b> This chapter offers a comprehensive overview of the status of evidence-based mental healthcare counseling systems in Pakistan, highlighting the need for enhanced resources, infrastructure, and awareness to address the growing mental health needs of the population. By shedding light on the effectiveness of evidence-based psychotherapies in the Pakistani context, this chapter serves as a valuable resource for policymakers, healthcare providers, and researchers seeking to improve mental healthcare outcomes in the country. More specifically, this chapter has made a substantial contribution in the following ways:i) This chapter assesses the current status of evidence-based mental healthcare counseling systems in Pakistan, identifying key challenges and opportunities for improvement.ii) By evaluating the effectiveness of evidence-based psychotherapies in the Pakistani context, this chapter provides insights into the applicability and relevance of these interventions in addressing mental health issues in the country.iii) The chapter offers recommendations for enhancing the effectiveness and accessibility of evidence-based mental healthcare counseling systems in Pakistan, including strategies for increasing awareness, building capacity, and improving infrastructure. <b><i>Short Results</i>:</b> In summary, this chapter serves as a crucial resource for understanding the status of evidence-based mental healthcare counseling systems in Pakistan. By identifying key challenges and opportunities, and offering recommendations for improvement, this chapter contributes to ongoing efforts to strengthen mental healthcare delivery and improve outcomes for individuals with mental health issues in Pakistan.

<b><i>Problem Domain</i>: </b>The last chapter of this book addresses the practical challenges and complexities involved in culturally adapting evidence-based psychotherapies to the cultural setting of Pakistan. One significant challenge is the lack of practical guidance on how to adapt treatment protocols effectively while considering the cultural nuances and sensitivities specific to Pakistan. Additionally, there is a notable gap in comprehensive information regarding the cultural adaptation of specific treatment protocols, such as Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing and CognitiveBehavioral Therapy, for addressing prevalent mental health issues in Pakistan, including post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and depression. Moreover, there is limited research on the efficacy and feasibility of culturally adapted treatment protocols in real-world settings within the Pakistani context, leaving a gap in understanding the practical implications and outcomes of these interventions. <b><i>Goal of this Chapter</i>:</b> The last chapter of this book aims to provide readers with a concrete grasp of the complete process of culturally adapting evidence-based psychotherapies in Pakistan. Through a practical case illustration, this chapter offers insights into the methods for cultural adaptation of treatment protocols and presents the results of an experiment on cultural adaptation conducted in Pakistan. The last chapter has endeavored to address the previously mentioned research gaps by furnishing readers with a solid understanding of the entire process involved in culturally adapting evidence-based psychotherapies within the context of Pakistan. <b><i>Selling Points and Contributions of this Chapter</i>:</b> This chapter serves as a valuable resource for practitioners and researchers seeking to enhance the efficacy and cultural relevance of psychotherapeutic interventions in Pakistan. By offering a practical demonstration of the cultural adaptation process and presenting experiment results, this chapter provides actionable insights for improving mental healthcare delivery in the country. This chapter has augmented the existing body of knowledge in the following ways:i) The chapter presents a practical scenario illustrating the complete process of culturally adapting evidence-based psychotherapies in the cultural setting of Pakistan by providing readers with a detailed understanding of the adaptation process.ii) Thorough information is provided on the cultural adaptation of treatment protocols of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for addressing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, anxiety, and depression in Pakistan, highlighting the importance of tailoring interventions to meet the cultural needs of the population. iii) The chapter unveils the outcomes of a randomized controlled trial conducted on cultural adaptation in Pakistan, providing valuable insights into the effectiveness and viability of modified treatment protocols in practical settings. The results of this trial have yielded significant insights, manifesting in the development of translated assessment tools like CAPS-5 and culturally adapted trauma-focused psychotherapy protocols. These customized tools and protocols hold promise for utilization by subsequent researchers in Pakistan.<b><i>Short Results</i>:</b> In summary, this chapter offers a practical demonstration of culturally adapting evidence-based psychotherapies to the cultural settings of Pakistan by providing valuable insights into the translation of treatment protocols and their efficacy in addressing mental health issues prevalent in the country.

BackgroundHigh infant and maternal mortality rates are one of the biggest health issues in Pakistan. Although these rates are given high priority at the national level (Millennium Development Goals 4 and 5, respectively), there has been no significant decrease in them so far. We hypothesize that this lack of success is because the undergraduate curriculum in Pakistan does not match local needs. Currently, the Pakistani medical curriculum deals with issues in maternal and child morbidity and mortality according to Western textbooks. Moreover, these are taught disjointedly through various departments. We undertook curriculum revision to sensitize medical students to maternal and infant mortality issues important in the Pakistani context and educate them about ways to reduce the same through an integrated teaching approach.MethodsThe major determinants of infant mortality in underdeveloped countries were identified through a literature review covering international research produced over the last 10 years and the Pakistan Demographic Health Survey 2006-07. An interdisciplinary maternal and child health module team was created by the Medical Education Department at Shifa College of Medicine. The curriculum was developed based on the role of identified determinants in infant and maternal mortality. It was delivered by an integrated team without any subject boundaries. Students' knowledge, skills, and attitudes were assessed by multiple modalities and the module itself by student feedback using questionnaires and focus group discussions.ResultsAssessment and feedback demonstrated that the students had developed a thorough understanding of the complexity of factors that contribute to infant mortality. Students also demonstrated knowledge and skill in counseling, antenatal care, and care of newborns and infants.ConclusionsA carefully designed integrated curriculum can help sensitize undergraduate medical students and equip them to identify and address complex issues related to maternal and infant mortality in underdeveloped countries.

Understanding how second language (L2) learners (those learning English as an additional language) are represented in English language learning research promotes an understanding of the history of English language education. Mitchell & Myles (2004) categorized views toward L2 learners among English Language learning (ELL) scholars into three perspectives: the linguistic perspective, the social psychological perspective, and the sociocultural perspective.

Aims and Objectives/Purpose/Research Questions: Second dialect acquisition is the process of acquiring features of a new dialect. This study directly compares the rates of second dialect acquisition in first (L1) and second (L2) language speakers in speech production and speech perception, and at different linguistic levels to establish the relative flexibility of the two groups. Design/Methodology/Approach: The participants completed a picture-naming, lexical decision, and wordlist reading tasks, which aimed at estimating their preference for American English or Australian English variants in vocabulary and pronunciation. Data and Analysis: The data come from 55 participants forming 4 different groups: 13 L1 American English speakers in the United States, 14 L1 American English speakers in Australia, 15 L1 Russian speakers of English in the United States, and 13 L1 Russian speakers of English who have lived in the United States and are residing in Australia. Findings/Conclusions: Both L1 and L2 groups show some second dialect acquisition, but L2 speakers exhibit a comparatively higher increase in second dialect feature use. While the difference in the picture-naming task did not reach significance, L2 speakers showed a greater increase in second dialect feature use in the other two tasks. These higher rates of second dialect acquisition in L2 speakers are likely due to their comparatively lower entrenchment and psycho-social investment in the language. Originality: This is the first study to directly compare the rates of second dialect acquisition in first and second language speakers of English, which can help elucidate some long-standing questions as to the factors affecting dialect and language acquisition. It also considers different linguistic levels and examines both speech production and speech perception. Significance/Implications: The finding that L2 speakers are more flexible than L1 speakers portrays L2 speakers as successful language learners and highlights their bilingual advantage.

The digital divide is nowadays evolving to digital inequality, i.e., the socio-economic disparities inside the ‘online population’. This paper examines two main dimensions of the digital inequality, namely ‘skills’ and ‘autonomy’ of Internet users. The level of formal education was selected as a representative variable of the skill dimension, as well as the density of population in different geographical areas as a representative variable of the autonomy dimension. The research was focused on the member states of the European Union (EU). The data, provided by Eurostat, included the daily use of computers for the last three months and the average use of the Internet at least once per week. The findings state that the EU already faces the problem of digital inequality to an extended rate, since there are significant disparities among the European countries with regard to the aforementioned variables.KeywordsDigital dividedigital inequalitydigital disparityICT

The present study is an investigation of ESL secondary school students’ pronunciation. A sample of 440 ESL students of grade 10 was randomly selected from the Southern Punjab, Pakistan. A test was developed to assess the ESL students’ pronunciation. The test consisted of monosyllabic, disyllabic, trisyllabic, quadrisyllabic, and multisyllabic words, diphthongs, triphthongs, stress and intonation, tongue twisters, voiced and unvoiced sounds, and interrogative, declarative, imperative, and exclamatory sentences. The students’ overall performance in pronunciation was computed using appropriate statistical analysis. The mean scores of male and female students, urban and rural students and public and private school students were compared through t-values. It was concluded, based on the findings, that ESL students’ pronunciation was good in articulating monosyllabic, disyllabic, trisyllabic, and quadrisyllabic words, stress and intonation, tongue twisters, voiced sounds, and imperative and exclamatory sentences. On the other hand, the participants poorly pronounced multisyllabic words, diphthongs, triphthongs, unvoiced sounds, interrogative sentences, and declarative sentences. Calculated t-values indicated that there was no significant difference in mean scores of male and female students, urban and rural students, and public and private school students. Some recommendations were made to improve the ESL students’ pronunciation.

Reviewed by: Linguistics: A very short introduction by Peter H. Matthews Ute Römer Linguistics: A very short introduction. By Peter H. Matthews. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Pp. 134. ISBN 0192801481. $9.95. Peter H. Matthews’s book consists of nine chapters, ‘The study of language’, ‘ “Homo loquens” ’, ‘Language in time and space’, ‘Language families’, ‘In praise of diversity’, ‘What is a language?’, ‘How much is systematic?’, ‘Sounds’, and ‘Language and the brain’, which are followed by a short ‘further reading’ section and an index. Ch. 1 defines linguistics as the study and ‘science’ of language, pointing out some central features of this uniquely human phenomenon. The chapter deals with some central linguistic problems, in particular the missing one-to-one relationships between words and sounds and between meanings in different languages. Ch. 2 further explores the topic of the talking species, the ‘homo loquens’, and identifies speech as the central feature of our society, raising questions about the origin and structure of language and about the evolution of our species, such as, Do we learn through experience or are we genetically programmed to a certain extent? Ch. 3 investigates language development and (mainly regional) variation, looking at phonological and lexical-grammatical features and referring, for instance, to William Labov’s early research. Variation is seen as both a product of and a potential for change. More information on language evolution and spread can be found in Ch. 4. It examines how languages relate to each other and how linguists go about reconstructing languages and parallels between them. Ch. 5 goes on to discuss the topic of interlanguage variation and praises diversity at different linguistic levels. The question is not only what features occur in some languages that are missing from others, but also whether and how people with different language backgrounds think and speak about the world in different ways. Ch. 6 gets back to answering the question ‘What is a language?’ and suggests a definition of language as a system that includes contrasting forms and hence rules or regularities that determine choices in the system and evoke certain patterns. The concept of the language system is further discussed in Ch. 7. The chapter aims to determine which phenomena are central to the system and which are rather peripheral. It also makes observations concerning rules and deviations from them in real-life language. Ch. 8 looks at contrasts between sounds and sound systems in different languages, covering both phonetic and phonological aspects, such as the articulation of stops, vowel harmony, or differences in sound transitions. By coming back to the subject of linguistic knowledge and by focusing on human beings as ‘brainy’ creatures, the last chapter of the book (Ch. 9) manages to close a circle. It raises one of the big unresolved issues in linguistics: Where, and especially how, is language controlled and synthesized in the brain? M has performed the very difficult task of compressing a wealth of material and presenting it in a most accessible way. A pocket-size booklet of some 130 pages cannot, of course, replace any of the much more comprehensive 500 + -page introductions to linguistics, but it is a nice complement and a welcome addition to Oxford’s ‘Very short introductions’ series. Ute Römer University of Hanover Copyright © 2005 Linguistic Society of America

This study has examined the equity issue in higher education in Pakistan that boys and girls have treated based on equitable access to education. While the social status of female students is very diverse in higher education than males. If compared with around the world, the current educational status of women has increased in the different fields on the bases of equity. Because women play a vital role in the growth of the economy by the dint of their professional skills. However, the role of women in Pakistan is different from around the world. If the compared relationship between urban and rural female students or women in Pakistan that women still face difficulties in several areas. Such as field engineering and math teaching as well as a public place. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the equity issue in already published literature by taking into account higher education in Pakistan. To, different studies’ findings have shown that there are many problems present in the educational system of Pakistan, such as a policy implementation with an international perspective, curriculum standards, and the use of technology in education. However, equity is also a core issue in higher education, which impact on female students. In this regard, those female students cannot reward easily their fundamental rights. Because of restrictions and some, important factors have linked to equity barriers. This study has used different sources of methods and materials through Google Scholar, Research Gate, and an Elsevier journal. Finally, significant results have described in this study by the dint of discussion and conclusion, which have drawn in the light of previously published literature.

The purpose of the current study was to evaluate differences in reported use of sun protection, tanning behaviors, skin cancer-related knowledge, and perceived risk between rural and urban high school students in a geographic area with high rates of melanoma. A total of 1,570 high school students (56.8% female) from urban (6 schools) and rural (7 schools) geographic areas in Utah completed questionnaires assessing sun protection and tanning behaviors, skin cancer-related knowledge, and perceived risk for skin cancer. Analyses examined potential differences in these outcomes between rural and urban students and by gender. Compared to students in urban areas, those in rural areas had lower odds of wearing sunscreen (OR 0.71; 95% CI 0.53, 0.95; p = 0.022), re-applying sunscreen (OR 0.61; 95% CI 0.74, 1.02; p = 0.002), wearing long-sleeved shirts (OR 0.63 95% CI 0.46, 0.86; p = 0.004), and seeking shade (OR 0.67; 95% CI 0.50, 0.88; p = 0.005). Rural students reported less adequate use of sun protection than urban students. Rural male students reported lower knowledge scores compared to urban males. Future skin cancer prevention efforts targeting rural high schoolers are warranted.

Socially inclusive strategies encourage empowering, progressive and sustainable responses to social challenges and needs. These strategies are made possible through inclusion and equitable consideration of diverse contributions of those affected by the problems, and who feel obliged to find solutions to the problems. In this paper, the principles of a free attitude interview technique as well as the critical discourse analysis are used to generate and analyse data. A participatory action research-oriented, socially inclusive teaching strategy was followed that is underpinned by critical emancipatory research principles. The study found that the listening and speaking skills of English first additional language learners improved significantly. This paper demonstrates how a socially inclusive teaching strategy can contribute to strengthening the teaching of listening and speaking skills in English first additional language, to Grade Four learners at a public farm school. Learners’ inability to listen attentively and speak fluently requires the application of an adequately responsive teaching strategy that focuses on improving learners’ listening and speaking skills in early stages of learning. The purpose of implementing the strategy is to contribute towards improving learners’ listening and speaking capabilities. This will in turn improve learners’ chances of doing well in other subjects. Keywords: English first additional language; listening and speaking skills; socially inclusive teaching strategy; teaching and learning

What are the determinants of rural-urban digital inequality among schoolchildren in Taiwan? Insights from Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition

Bilingual and multilingual brain studies of language recognition is an interdisciplinary subject which needs to identify different levels involved in the neural representation of languages, such as neuroanatomical, neurofunctional, biochemical, psychological and linguistic levels. Furthermore, specific factors such as age, manner of acquisition and environmental factors seem to affect the neural representation. Functional brain imaging, such as PET, SPECT and functional MRI can explore the neurelinguisties representation of bilingualism in the brain in subjects, and elucidate the neuronal mechanisms of bilingual language processing. Functional imaging methods show differences in the pattern of cerebral activation associated with a second language compared with the subject's native language. It shows that verbal memory processing in two unrelated languages is mediated by a common neural system with some distinct cortical areas. The different patterns of activation differ according to the language used. It also could be ascribed either to age of acquisition or to proficiency level. And attained proficiency is more important than age of acquisition as a determinant of the cortical representation of the second language. The study used PET and SPECT shows that sign and spoken language seem to be localized in the same brain areas, and elicit similar regional cerebral blood flow patterns. But for sign language perception, the functional anatomy overlaps that of language processing contain both auditory and visual components. And the sign language is dependent on spatial information too. Key words: Language tests; Positron-emission tomography; Tomography, emission-computed, single-photon; Magnetic resonance imaging

The COVID-19 pandemic had has a impact on education in Bangladesh, especially for rural areas students. This research was conducted in the South Bali Para village of Trishal Upazila in Mymensingh and focused to investigate the difficulties faced by rural students in terms of accessing and adjusting to online education during the pandemic. A sample of 300 students from primary to higher secondary levels was surveyed, and empirical research revealed that economic hardship and lack of access to online education were the primary concerns for rural students. This contrasts with urban students, who were primarily affected by mental health issues. According to the research findings, more than 60% of households in rural areas lacked internet access or smartphones, despite the fact that approximately 70% of primary, lower, and higher secondary students resided in these regions. Efforts to provide remote learning through methods such as television or multimedia classrooms in remote areas did not effectively support rural students in their online education during the pandemic. Therefore, the study highlights the socioeconomic challenges and costs of pandemic-led online education in rural Bangladesh, including the increased risk of dropouts and child marriages. The findings emphasize the urgent need for an inclusive and accessible strategy for remote learning that specifically addresses the needs of the poorest and most vulnerable students in Bangladesh.