Social networks of forest owners producing non-timber forest products – network structures and dynamics of exchanges

Global trends towards the bioeconomy and multidimensional ecosystem-based approaches are transforming our understanding of forests and expanding access to forest management. The demand for non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is increasing due to the current trends in lifestyle and consumption. Forest owners play a key role in the supply of NTFPs. However, many forest owners are not committed to production or aware of the opportunities for production of their forests. Understanding better the family forest owners’ behaviour and decision making regarding NTFPs is needed to strengthen the role of NTFPs in the Finnish bioeconomy. In this study, forest owners’ perspectives concerning NTFPs, Everyman’s Rights, and organic certification of forests were identified. The survey data were collected by emailing the questionnaire to North Karelian forest owners and analysed by creating forest owner typologies based on their forest ownership motives and perspectives concerning NTFPs. Regarding forest ownership motives, four owner groups of relatively equal size were identified and named as recreationist, conservationists, timber producers, and resigning owners leaving the forest property to the next generation. Regarding their use of NTFPs and interest in producing NTFPs four groups of owners were identified: owners who 1) harvested NTFPs for household use or 2) sale, 3) would allow the harvesting of NTFPs not covered by everyman’s right, and 4) need more information on the joint production of timber and NTFPs not covered by Everyman’s Rights. Most owners were household users. The results can be utilised to promote NTFP production and advocate for the more effective organic certification of forests for different forest owner groups.

Purpose of ReviewThe increased popularity and commercial use of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) calls for the development of models for NTFPs to include their predicted yields in forest management planning and to evaluate the potential of multi-functional forest management. This study assesses and discusses the current state of the art and trends in NTFP yield modelling in Europe and the integration of the models in multi-functional forest management planning at different spatial scales.Recent FindingsClimate-sensitive empirical yield models already exist not only for a variety of NTFPs that are economically important to forest owners (e.g. cork and pine nuts) but also for wild-gathered berries and mushrooms, the harvesting of which cannot be controlled by the forest landowner in all European countries. Several studies on multi-functional forest management planning consider the economic profitability of the joint production of timber and NTFP. Harvesting NTFPs can create significant additional incomes for forest owners, compared with timber production only. However, maximizing the economic returns from the joint production of timber and NTFPs often calls for changes in forest management practices.SummaryContinued efforts in modelling and predicting the yields of NTFPs have enabled forest managers to further expand the analyses of multi-functional forest planning and management in Europe. Climate-sensitive models also allow analyses on the potential effects of climate change on NTFP yields. New models and forest management practices are still needed for tree fruits, birch sap, a wider variety of wild edible mushrooms, specialty mushrooms cultivated on live trees as well as medicinal and edible forest herbs harvested for commercial value in Europe.

Forest owners’ decision making is influenced by the people around them. In this thesis, social network approach was used to examine owners’ relationships with different individuals and organisations. The motivation of the thesis was to detect effective information channels that reach owners and the network structures that support owners’ decision-making. Social network data from Finnish, small-scale forest owners were collected with a mail questionnaire and by phone interviews in two decision-making situations, timber trade (n=753) and voluntary biodiversity protection (n=44). For examining owners’ peer networks, data were collected via forest owners’ and forest professionals’ focus group interviews (n=43) and by interviewing and observing a study circle (n=7). Characteristics of egocentric networks were calculated with quantitative methods of social network analysis. Protection processes and owners’ mutual interactions were analysed with qualitative theory driven content analysis. Results indicate that several owners have one trusted professional with whom they deal both in timber trade and in voluntary protection. When owners have large holdings or significant decisions to make, such as permanent protection, their networks are large and diverse. To keep owners actively making forest-related decisions, it is important to transfer functioning channels between the professional and the owner to the next generation of owners. A forest management plan is a way to promote activities other than silviculture, such as biodiversity protection. Owners’ peer networks particularly exist among families and in the countryside between neighbours. In urban areas, owners meet mainly in expert-led extension events, where they have only a little space for mutual communication. One of the few owner-led practices is forest owner clubs. To strengthen forest owners’ identities, owner-driven and sufficiently homogenous peer groups that focus on diverse and interesting topics need to be created. Moreover, it is important to support the delivery of forest-related knowledge among families and via mentor owners.

Chapter 9 - Non-Timber Forest Products – A Misnomer?: This chapter was previously published in Leakey, R.R.B., 2012. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 24, 145–146, with permission of Forest Research Institute of Malaysia

The objective of this paper was to understand the perspectives of multiple stakeholders on the adoption of specialty wood-decay mushroom cultivation on stumps in connection with timber harvesting in Finland. The perspectives of supply chain actors, i.e., forest owners, forest harvesting entrepreneurs, forest professionals, and natural product entrepreneurs, were assessed using web-based questionnaires. Forest professionals (34%) were most interested in specialty mushroom cultivation in co-operation with companies selling cultures or buying mushrooms, whereas about one-fourth of the forest owners (23%) indicated that interest. Forest owners were willing to do the cultivation by themselves and to lease their forests for mushroom cultivation. Compared to household users, forest owners who had commercialised the non-timber forest products (NTFPs) of their forests or were willing to sell licences for NTFP picking and gathering permits were more interested in mushroom cultivation. Additionally, background information on forest owners, such as part-time forestry entrepreneurship, younger age, male gender, and higher education, significantly increased the odds of indicating interest in participating in the supply chain. One-fourth of the harvesting entrepreneurs (25%) indicated an interest in marketing and providing specialty mushroom cultivation services to forest owners in timber harvesting. Specialty mushrooms were already used by 26% of natural product entrepreneurs, and 40% indicated that specialty mushrooms could be used in the future. The shortage of information on, for example, cultivation success, yield, and costs, as well as profitability analyses, was acknowledged by all supply chain actors as the most serious barrier inhibiting their partnership in the production and utilisation of specialty mushrooms.

This study maps forest owners’ communication relationships in timber sales in Finland. The study applies the concept of structural equivalence from social network analysis. The aim is to recognise the existing communication channels that forest owners have during their timber sales to be better able to reach different forest owners. The egocentric data were collected from Finnish forest owners via a mail questionnaire (n=1244, response rate 59.7%). After a multiple imputation of incomplete network data, 753 respondents were included in the analysis. The most typical network structures were identified through a TwoStep Cluster Analysis, yielding non-committed Forest Management Association (FMA)-members (34%), independent timber traders (27%), relationship builders (24%) and FMA-partners (15%). The FMA-partners have an exclusive connection with the FMA, whereas the connections of independent timber traders are directed towards the timber buyer. It is essential for both the FMAs and timber buying companies to maintain and develop these existing relationships with their committed customers. Relationship builders differ from the others by having the largest networks with both forestry professionals and peer forest owners. The results suggest that these active forest owners could be channels to reach passive forest owners.

The social networks of Irish private forest owners: An exploratory study

The sustainable management and protection of Vietnam's forests and landscapes is vital for the health and well-being of its rural communities. Forests play a crucial role in protecting watersheds, preventing soil erosion, maintaining the water cycle, and fighting climate change. Timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are an important source of income and nutrition. But economic development and growing demand for food, energy and wood resources are putting increasing pressure on Vietnam's forests and landscapes. To protect these vital ecosystem services, in 2010 the Government of Vietnam became the first country in Asia to institutionalize a nationwide policy on PFES. Mandated through Government Decree No.99, the PFES policy requires users of forest environmental services to make payments to suppliers of these services. Services, as outlined in Decree 99 include: watershed protection; natural landscape beauty protection and biodiversity conservation for tourism; forest carbon sequestration and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions through the prevention of deforestation and forest degradation; and the provision of the forest hydrological services for spawning in coastal fisheries and aquaculture. Vietnam's Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), which is responsible for implementing PFES, has successfully issued procedures andestablished fixed payments for watershed and landscape beauty protection services. In addition, they have identified forest environmental service users as water supply companies, and hydropower plants and tourism companies; and suppliers as forest owners - individuals, households, communities or organizations who hold forested land titles. Currently, MARD is developing a framework to capture payments for the forest's hydrological services provided the aquaculture sector, and is linking payments for forest carbon sequestration services to the UN-led REDD+ scheme (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation), which is moving into the pilot phase. Suppliers of forest environmental services are forest owners - individuals, households, communities or organizations who hold forested land titles.

Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) are significant outcome of forest products and these are harvested by tribes for their livelihood needs. Some of the NTFPs are fruits, seeds, medicinal and aromatic plants, resins, honey, gum, bamboos and canes. NTFP is extracted from natural forests and mix of forest-based agricultural fields. NTFP product has both rural and urban market linkages. The collectors faced problems in marketing of NTFPs because of underdeveloped markets. Management of NTFPs means both the conservation of forest with relatively good biodiversity impacts. Social networks could help bridge the tribe's livelihood support and conservation of forests through compliment efforts to improve the functions of NTFP management and marketing. NTFPs in rural livelihoods are key for any development policy to respond to the needs of local people. A review of the NTFP management suggests that asynchronous networking via modern technologies would be a better option for both livelihood and conservation.

Together We Can Improve Outcomes in Kidney Failure: Examining Social Networks in Hemodialysis

Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) are major source of livelihoods to the rural dwellers. It provides essential food and nutrition, medicine, fodder, thatch and construction materials, mulch and non-farm income for rural households. NTFPs has not been given due attention regardless of its contribution to the livelihoods improvements of the rural communities. The study examined the contribution of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) to the livelihoods of rural dwellers in Igabi Local Government Area of Kaduna State. Two-staged sampling techniques were used for the study. Four districts were selected purposively and random sampling was used to select 80 respondents from four communities within the selected districts. Data were collected with well structured questionnaires and presented with mean, percentage and frequency distribution while Likert Scale and Chisquare were used to analysed the data. The results showed that 41.25% of the respondents are famers, male (78.75%), age range between 31-40 years (38.75%), married (63.75%) with household size of 11-15 (47.50%) members, had primary school education (30.00%) and with experience of 11 to 15 years (48.75%) in the use of NTFPs. Sixteen different types of NTFPs were available, most commonly collected and most often used for food, medicine, cooking, construction and preservation. These NTFPs were mushrooms, fruits and nuts, vegetables, seeds, bushmeat, medicinal plants, snails, leaves, poles, firewood, ropes, pegs, stakes, honey, bamboo and locust beans. Most of the respondents obtained their NTFPs from the market, forest and farms. The average income obtained from NTFPs per respondent per month was N 32,250. It was observed NTFPs contributes significantly (X2 = 34.73) to the livelihoods of the respondents. The study concludes that the NTFPs generate income, serves as sources of food security, medicine, providing multiple social and cultural values thereby increasing the overall livelihoods of the rural dwellers in the study area.

Chapter 3 - Privacy-Preserving Social Network Integration, Analysis, and Mining

Family forest owners and landscape-scale interactions: A review

The rapid growth in popularity of online social networks provides new opportunities in computer science, sociology, math, information studies, biology, business, and more. Social network analysis (SNA) is a paramount technique supporting understanding social relationships and networks. Accordingly, certain studies and reviews have been presented focusing on information dissemination, influence analysis, link prediction, and more. However, the ultimate aim is for social network background knowledge and analysis to solve real-world social network problems. SNA still has several research challenges in this context, including users’ privacy in online social networks. Inspired by these facts, we have presented a survey on social network analysis techniques, visualization, structure, privacy, and applications. This detailed study has started with the basics of network representation, structure, and measures. Our primary focus is on SNA applications with state-of-the-art techniques. We further provide a comparative analysis of recent developments on SNA problems in the sequel. The privacy preservation with SNA is also surveyed. In the end, research challenges and future directions are discussed to suggest to researchers a starting point for their research.

Sustainable forest management aims to maintain and enhance the economic, social and environmental value of all types of forests, for the benefit of present and future generations. In Swaziland, despite the existence of numerous local, national, regional and international policies and legislation, sustainable forest management is far fetched. The objective of this paper was to review previous studies on policy reviews, the current status of the non-timber forest products (NTFP) sector, community consultations on resource use and management, user surveys to determine the actual quantities of harvested and utilized edible and medicinal NTFPs, and economic analyses for their direct use value, and inventory and economic valuation of standing stock of various NTFPs. Ulimatelty, this paper has made policy recommendations for the development of a theoretical framework for the sustainable management of NTFPs at the local, national, regional and international levels. This theoretical framework is divided into a set of eleven strategies. These are: Information and social communication; secure rights and access to products from natural forests and woodlands; adoption of innovative policies, revising and updating legislation and elaborating national forestry programmes; development and implementation of national level criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management; project planning and control techniques; local level guidelines for sustainable NTFP management; conservation and financing mechanisms; collaboration and networking between all institutions involved in research and development of NTFPs; institutional strengthening and capacity building; education and training at all levels of community structures; and research and development. Key words: Non-timber forest products (NTFPs), policy, strategy, policies, legislation, economic valuation, sustainable management, assessment, sustainable resource use.