Social Exclusion and Aggression: the Mediating Role of Self-Control and Moderating Role of Self-Compassion.

BackgroundThe current study examined the effect of social exclusion on aggressive behavior, how relative deprivation might mediate this effect, and how upward social comparison (USC) might moderate the indirect pathway.MethodsOne thousand seven hundred and sixty-six college students were investigated, with an average age of 19.53 (SD = 1.09) years. Participants completed questionnaires regarding social exclusion, aggressive behavior, relative deprivation, and USC. The data was analyzed using regression-based moderated mediation modeling. PROCESS Models 4 and 7 macros for SPSS were used to test the mediation and moderated mediation models with 5,000 random sample bootstrapping confidence intervals (CIs).ResultsThe findings revealed a significant positive association between social exclusion and aggressive behavior among Chinese college students (r = 0.362, p < 0.001). Relative deprivation played a partial mediating role between social exclusion and aggressive behavior (indirect effect = 0.045, 95%CI [0.028, 0.062]). The association between social exclusion and aggressive behavior was moderated by USC. For college students with low USC, the effect of moderated mediation (effect = 0.035, 95%CI [0.022, 0.050]). For college students with high USC, the effect of moderated mediation was 0.057 (95%CI [0.034, 0.081]). The link between social exclusion and relative deprivation was stronger for college students with high levels of upward social comparison than for college students with low levels of upward social comparison (β = 0.405, t = 11.976, p < 0.001 vs. β = 0.251, t = 8.182, p < 0.001).ConclusionRelative deprivation could be a mechanism by which social exclusion was linked with aggressive behavior and USC enhanced the effect of relative deprivation. This study was important in investigating how social exclusion was related to aggressive behavior among Chinese college students which provided meaningful implications for reducing aggressive behavior. Thus, this study explored “how” and “when” social exclusion might enhance aggressive behavior among Chinese college students. The results suggested that relative deprivation and USC might be prime targets for prevention and intervention programs of aggressive behavior among Chinese college students.

Although social exclusion has been shown to play an important role in depression, little is known about mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying this relation among college students. Based on conservation of resources theory and hopelessness theory of depression, the current study investigated the mediating role of psychological capital and the moderating role of implicit theories in the relation between social exclusion and depression. Five hundred and fifty-three Chinese college students filled out questionnaires regarding social exclusion, depression, psychological capital and implicit theories. After gender and age were controlled, social exclusion was significantly and positively associated with depression. Mediation analysis revealed that psychological capital partially mediated the association between social exclusion and depression. Moderated mediation analysis further indicated that the indirect effect of social exclusion on depression was moderated by implicit theories. The indirect path was only significant for entity theorists but not for incremental theorists. These findings may help to design effective psychological interventions for college students with higher level of depression.

The need-to-belong theory stipulates that social exclusion fosters aggression, whereas the social-reconnection hypothesis suggests that social exclusion promotes motivation to behave cooperatively. To date, empirical investigations of these contrasting views have focused on the immediate effects of social exclusion, yielding mixed results. Here we examine longer term effects of preschool social exclusion on children's functioning 2 years later. Social exclusion was reported by teachers, aggression and cooperation by parents. Cross-lagged analyses showed that greater social exclusion at age 4 predicted more aggression and less cooperation at age 6, providing support for the need-to-belong rather than social-reconnection hypothesis. Secondary analyses showed that social exclusion predicted more aggression only among children scoring above mean on aggression at age 4, indicating that aggressive behavior is amplified by social exclusion among children already behaving aggressively. No gender differences were found. Implications and limitations are discussed in a developmental context.

Teaching and Learning Guide for: ‘Ostracism: The Kiss of Social Death’

Prior work has indicated both theoretical and empirical overlap between social and physical aggression. The extent to which their covariance can be explained by the same underlying genetic or environmental factors, however, remains unclear. It is also uncertain whether or how the origins of their covariance might vary across sex. The current study sought to fill these gaps in the literature. We examined maternal and teacher reports of youth physical and social aggression in over 1000 6-10 years old (mean age = 8.02 years) twin pairs from the Michigan State University Twin Registry. We made use of the bivariate correlated factors model to clarify the origins of their association. We further tested both sex difference and no-sex difference versions of that model to determine whether there are sex differences in the association between social and physical aggression, as often assumed. The covariation between social and physical aggression was due to overlapping genetic factors and common environmental conditions. Specifically, 50-57% of the genetic factors, 74-100% of the shared environmental factors, and 28-40% of the unique environmental factors influencing physical aggression also influenced social aggression according to both mother and teacher reports. These shared etiological factors did not differ across sex. These findings argue against the common assumption that social aggression is the 'female version' of male physical aggression, and instead suggest that social aggression may be best conceptualized as a form of antisocial behavior that shares developmental pathways with other manifestations of externalizing pathology.

Although some research has demonstrated that people with lower self-esteem are more aggressive, a review of this literature has suggested that aggression is also a high self-esteem trait, especially when considering the impact of social exclusion. Specifically, anger and aggression may result from the conflict experienced by individuals who are socially excluded but who have a high self-esteem. To examine this possibility, we tested a group of college students in which half were socially excluded and the others were not. We then measured anger and social aggression toward the excluders and toward a stranger. Students reporting relatively high levels of self-esteem were significantly more angry, but not aggressive after being excluded. In general, low self-esteem participants showed higher social aggression than those with high self-esteem. Also, socially excluded participants were more socially aggressive towards the excluders and non-socially excluded participants were more aggressive towards a stranger. The social aggression in lower self-esteem participants is seen as part of their overall critical nature and instead, an increase in anger is a more indicative reaction to social exclusion for those with higher self-esteem.

The collection of articles in this special issue on relational aggression gives us a glimpse into the complex social networks, first, of children's relational aggression and, second, of the collaborators who develop and validate children's prevention programs. In these descriptions of nascent efforts to create programs that address relational aggression--nonphysical types of aggression, also called indirect or social aggression--we see how research-based knowledge about children's development and aggression is actively integrated with the wisdom of practice in participatory action models of program development. The programs described in this special section are among the first to address relational aggression explicitly and to begin to create an evidence base for programs to prevent it (see also Salmivalli, Kaukiainen, & Voeten, 2005). In this commentary, I highlight key questions raised by their approaches to relational aggresssion: Is it a girls'world? Is early adolescence a critical period for intervention? Is relational aggression a result of individual social skill deficits or pathology, or of social norms, or of both? Can we see it? I end by briefly discussing the art and science of program development, evaluation, and dissemination that is so eloquently described in these articles and the benefits of collaborations among researchers, school personnel, and parents for keeping our schools safe for children's healthy development and learning. Just Girls? Although publicly accepted, the idea that girls use relational aggression more than boys has been refuted by recent reviews of the international literature (Archer, 2004; Card, Stucky, Sawalani, & Little, 2008; Leff, Waasdorp, & Crick, 2010). Girls do use relational aggression more than physical aggression and more girls report being hurt by relational aggression than do boys. However, boys are also adept at using relational aggression and they do experience its painful consequences. The horrifying stories of young men who were consistently shamed, socially isolated, and humiliated by their peers and went on to kill their teachers and classmates (Garbarino, 1999) give us pause in thinking that girl-only programs will successfully address these concerns. Loss of friendships and social isolation are painful for boys, and they may be less likely to disclose their victimization. Moreover, jealousy in romantic relationships can become fodder for relational aggressive acts in middle and high school (Leadbeater, Banister, Ellis, & Yeung, 2008). Gender-differentiated programs that fail to take account of boys and cross-sex relational aggression will also fall short. We need to know more about boys' use of relational aggression. As seen in Leff, Waasdorp, Paakewich et al. (2010) and Verlaan and Turmel (2010), programs that are based on reducing relational aggression in girls only or that use materials with girls doing most of the talking may not reach out adequately to boys. Is Early Adolescence a Critical Period for Intervention? It is not surprising that programs in this special series target late elementary and early middle schools and their students. Leff, Waasdorp, and Crick (2010) note that forms of relational aggression evolve in complexity from the overt use of social exclusion by preschoolers to include more varied and subtle expressions in young adolescents. Reviews of the available cross-sectional evidence suggest that social manipulation and ostracism (e.g., alienation, rumors, social exclusion, and rejection) increase as children move from middle childhood into adolescence. Longitudinal studies of the trajectories of social, relational, or indirect aggression are rare, but these also suggest that the use of social aggression increases in early adolescence for both boys and girls (Vaillancourt & Hymel, 2004). There are many reasons why late elementary and early middle school students may be vulnerable to the harms of relational aggression. …

Challenging what is known : A mixed method study of perceptions and experiences of social exclusion among the oldest old

This thesis examines the education and social inclusion and exclusion of young mothers, focusing on the experiences of sixteen pregnant young women and mothers attending a course of antenatal education during 2007. I use a critical feminist approach to examine the meanings of education in this setting alongside the young women's mothering identities. The thesis interrogates the effects of New Labour's Teenage Pregnancy Strategy in relation to the young women in my study. I analyse how the concept of 'social exclusion' has cast the 'teenage mother' as responsible for reproducing a cycle of disadvantage, obscuring the socially including aspects of young motherhood. I argue that policy constructions of teenage motherhood are contradicted by the lived experience of the young mothers in my study. In defiance of discourses of the teenage mother as unfit mother, the young women construct themselves in many cases as ready for motherhood and as resilient adults who choose to 'take responsibility' for their actions, re-engage with education and want to 'do the best' for their children. I challenge the idea that 'interventions' such as this antenatal educational setting are part of a policy framework that seeks to teach 'middle-class' parenting methods to working-class young women. Rather, the professionals working in the setting transform policy discourses to support and defend the young women from stigma. I contrast the young women's positive experiences in the setting with their negative school experiences, and show how the process of educational disaffection often happens prior to pregnancy, and how pregnancy precipitates increased motivation. The young women use pregnancy as a way to transition from a 'bad girl' to a 'good mother' identity, and as an opportunity to re-evaluate family relationships and friendships. I conclude by making policy recommendations with regard to the education of pregnant young women and mothers.

Social exclusion has a profound emotional impact on children. However, there is still limited and partly conflicting experimental evidence for the possible effect of social exclusion on children's cognitive performance. In the present study, we tested the possibility that some children are more vulnerable than others to the negative effects of social exclusion on cognitive performance. We selected 4 potential candidates that could moderate the effects of social exclusion: relational self-esteem, peer ratings of popularity, rejection sensitivity and nonverbal intelligence. Individual differences in these 4 potential moderating factors were first assessed in a sample of 318 children (45.6% females; mean age=9.92years). Then, in a subsequent experimental session, the participants were either socially included or excluded using a typical manipulation (i.e., the Cyberball paradigm). Following the manipulation, the children's cognitive performance was assessed using a logical reasoning test. The results showed that the children with lower scores for relational self-esteem (the bottom 37.46% of the sample), lower popularity (43.49%) or weaker nonverbal intelligence (37.80%) performed worse on the logical reasoning test following social exclusion. Moreover, children with combined low self-esteem, popularity and nonverbal intelligence were the most affected by social exclusion. This study identified factors that make some children more vulnerable to the negative effects of social exclusion. Overall, the present work underscores the value of considering basic cognitive and relational individual differences when developing interventions aimed at preventing the negative effects of social exclusion among children.

Adopting a powerful posture leads individuals to feel more confident and dominant. Social exclusion can strongly impact individuals' mood and basic social needs. The current research combines these bodies of research, investigating the effects of dominant and submissive poses on responses to social exclusion and inclusion. In two experiments, participants held a slouching or upright pose and were either socially included or excluded using the Cyberball social exclusion manipulation. Social exclusion only affected participants' mood when individuals took a powerful posture: Excluded participants in powerful postures had more negative mood after exclusion than included power‐posing participants, but effects of exclusion and inclusion did not differ among submissive‐posing participants (Experiments 1 and 2). Similarly, it was also found that social exclusion affected basic needs only when participants' adopted powerful poses (Experiment 2). Copyright © 2013 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Close friendships are a critical component of children’s social lives and experiences at school. Friendships include both positive and negative features that help explain their contributions to social, emotional, cognitive, and academic adjustment. Some friendships involve social aggression, whereby youth deliberately attempt to harm another’s social relationships, social roles, or social status through behaviors including spreading rumors, negative gossip, social exclusion, and negative facial expressions. Children and adolescents who are socially aggressive may engage in these behaviors with their friends (e.g., sharing negative gossip or starting a rumor about a third party with a close friend); in addition, social aggression also occurs within friendships when one friend uses social aggression against the other. In the current chapter, we discuss existing research on social aggression, including research on the negative outcomes for children and adolescents who are the victims of these behaviors and research suggesting that there are potentially both negative (e.g., depressive symptoms) and positive (e.g., popularity) consequences for perpetrators of social aggression. A primary goal of the chapter is to present evidence-based strategies teachers might implement in their classrooms to reduce these behaviors, including developing positive relationships with students, creating a positive classroom climate, and serving as managers of classroom social dynamics.

ObjectiveTo examine the mediating effects of social exclusion and experiential avoidance on college students’ emotional intelligence and problematic social media use.MethodsUsing convenience sampling, 1,448 students enrolled at nine public universities in Chengdu, Beijing, Shanghai, and Kunming were recruited from May 1, 2021, to October 28, 2021. The Emotional Intelligence Scale, the Social Exclusion Questionnaire for College Students, the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire, and the Problematic Mobile Social Media Use Assessment Questionnaire for Adolescents were used to conduct the survey.ResultsThe results showed that college students’ emotional intelligence was negatively correlated with social exclusion, experiential avoidance, and problematic social media use (p < 0.01). Social exclusion among college students was positively correlated with experiential avoidance and problematic social media use (p < 0.01), and experiential avoidance was positively correlated with problematic social media use (p < 0.01). This study revealed that college students’ emotional intelligence directly influences their problematic social media use. Social exclusion and experiential avoidance mediated, and sequentially chain-mediated, the effects of emotional intelligence on problematic social media use.ConclusionEmotional intelligence can potentially influence problematic social media use directly and indirectly through social exclusion and experiential avoidance.

Both social exclusion and loneliness are aversive experiences that can lead to hostile behavioral reactions, including aggressive behavior. This study aimed to assess whether a social exclusion scenario in the subject’s imagination elicits aggressive reactions towards an excluding person as measured with the hot sauce paradigm. Furthermore, we studied the effect of loneliness on such reactions. In total, 251 subjects (67.7% female; mean age 27.3 ± 9.3 years) participated in this study which was based on an online survey. After trait loneliness was assessed with the UCLA Loneliness scale at baseline, two imaginary scenarios were presented in randomized order, i.e., an exclusion condition (with one of two working colleagues excluding the participant from a social activity) and an inclusion condition (without exclusion). Following each scenario, participants had the task to allocate the amount of hot sauce to each colleague that they find appropriate. Participants distributed significantly more hot sauce to the excluder than to the includers. The amount of hot sauce was significantly correlated with loneliness for all includer interactions (i.e., after the inclusion as well as the exclusion scenario), but not for the interaction with the excluder. Our results support the hypothesis that social exclusion elicits aggressive behavior. Interestingly, the experience of loneliness seems to be associated with an increase in aggressive behavioral tendencies or a lack of their inhibition. The cognitive and/or emotional processes underlying the interplay between social exclusion, loneliness and aggression should be a focus of future research.

Effects of social exclusion and physical pain in chronic opioid maintenance treatment: fMRI correlates