Social demographic determinants of clean water accessibility in Northern Tanzania

Clean water accessibility is vital to human health and well-being, a fundamental human right. Over 1.7 billion people do not have consistent access to safe drinking water, negatively affecting their health and socioeconomic status. Despite global recognition of clean water as a fundamental human right, many households in peri-urban areas of developing countries, including northern Tanzania, continue to face significant challenges in accessing reliable water sources. In the Kikwe peri-urban ward, disparities in access to clean water are influenced by various social determinants such as education level, gender roles, marital status, and proximity to water sources. These social factors contribute to unequal water distribution and increased vulnerability to waterborne diseases and economic burdens, especially among women and marginalized groups. However, limited empirical data exists on how these social determinants specifically affect household water access in Kikwe, hindering the development of targeted, evidence-based interventions. This study, therefore, aimed to investigate the social determinants of household clean water accessibility in Kikwe peri-urban ward of northern Tanzania. The cross-sectional survey combined quantitative and qualitative research methods on 353 respondents sampled from the Kikwe ward. Inference and descriptive statistics were employed to analyze the social determinants and respective associations with clean water accessibility. Results show that 64% of respondents finished elementary school, 53% were male, the majority 25.8% aged between 45 to 54, 73.7% were married, 37.4% rely on water from the rivers, 33.7% use public standpipes as the primary source of water, 62.9% female primarily responsible for fetching water and 84.7% of users do not treat water for their daily use. A weak significant correlation existed between water sources and social variables tested, implying clean water is an essential commodity, which needs to be distributed equally regardless of individual status. The findings highlight that clean water accessibility in peri-urban Kikwe is significantly influenced by social inequalities, particularly gender, and proximity to water sources. While the statistical correlations were weak, the trends point to systemic disparities that require deliberate policy attention. It is concluded that equitable access to clean water cannot be achieved without addressing these underlying social determinants. Therefore, it is recommended that targeted educational programs using mobile platforms be introduced to enhance awareness on water treatment and conservation. Additionally, empowering communities through participatory water governance, investing in affordable and decentralized water treatment solutions, and improving local infrastructure is critical for long-term water security and public health resilience in peri-urban areas like Kikwe.

The lack of clean water contributes to the transmission of waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid, particularly among vulnerable populations. This situation threatens public health, especially in resource-limited settings. Various regulatory and environmental factors, including bylaws and policies, water tariffs, electricity access, flooding, infrastructure conditions, pollution, and drought, significantly impact access to clean water by influencing the availability and quality of water resources. This study examines the regulatory environment factors affecting access to clean water in peri-urban communities reliant on piped systems, focusing on household clean water availability in northern Tanzania. Based on the Mary Douglas's Cultural Theory, the study adopted a cross-sectional design to collect quantitative data. Questionnaires were administered to a purposive sample of 353 respondents drawn from a target population of 10,965 individuals from 3,030 households, all aged 18 years or older. Data analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics with the aid of SPSS software. Qualitative data was collected from key informants through interviews and analysed thematically. The results revealed that 51% were aware of the water and environmental policies, 84.7% participated in meetings, 23.2% paid water bills, and access to clean water throughout the year was challenging. The chi-square test indicated a significant relationship (χ² = 48.118, df = 12, p = 0.000) between institutional frameworks and clean water accessibility. Additionally, planting trees and properly managing water sources contribute to the protection of water resources. Educating the community and protecting water sources play a significant role in preserving ecological health and ensuring the sustainability of communities. The study concludes that there is a relationship between regulatory frameworks and clean water accessibility in northern Tanzania. The study recommends continuous provision of education and awareness programs focused on the effective use, management, and protection of water sources to ensure public health and clean water accessible sustainability.

In the context of climate change, ensuring the sustainability and resilience of urban water infrastructure in South Africa remains a critical challenge. This study investigates the barriers hindering effective water infrastructure delivery and identifies the factors contributing to inefficiencies. It also evaluates strategies to enhance the resilience and sustainability of water infrastructure projects, focusing on water utility agencies across the country. Key research questions include: What are the barriers to the delivery of sustainable and resilient water infrastructure in South Africa? What strategies can enable the delivery of sustainable and resilient water infrastructure in South Africa? Using survey research, statistical modelling, and case study analysis, the study highlights significant challenges such as ageing infrastructure, poor maintenance, financial constraints, climate change impacts, governance issues, inefficient project management, and water resource scarcity. These challenges were found to stem from four core dimensions: inadequate project management practices, organisational and managerial limitations, operational and maintenance deficiencies, and socio‐political factors. In response, the study proposes a five‐pronged strategic framework to strengthen water infrastructure delivery. Recommended strategies include upgrading and maintaining ageing systems, improving funding mechanisms and financial oversight, adopting climate‐resilient technologies, enhancing project management capacity, and reinforcing governance and accountability structures. Implementing these strategies is essential for ensuring South African cities are better prepared to withstand climate‐related disruptions and maintain reliable access to water resources. Ultimately, integrating sustainability and resilience into water infrastructure planning and management is vital for securing long‐term water security and supporting urban development under changing environmental conditions

Conventional water infrastructure in urban environments is based on the centralized approach. This approach consists of building pipe network that provides potable water to consumers and drainage network that transport wastewater and stormwater runoff away from population centers. However, as illustrated in this article, centralized water infrastructures are not sustainable over a long period of time for a variety of reasons. This article presents the concept of a holistic approach for sustainable water management that incorporates decentralized water infrastructures into water management system design in urban environments. Decentralized water infrastructures are small to medium-scale systems that use and/or reuse local sources of water such as captured rainwater, stormwater runoff and wastewater. The holistic approach considers these waters as a valuable resource not to be wasted but utilized. This article briefly introduces various types of decentralized water infrastructures appropriate for urban settings. This article focuses on the effectiveness of rooftop rainwater harvesting systems as a decentralized water infrastructure and as a critical component of developing a holistic and sustainable water infrastructure in urban environments. Despite widespread use of rainwater harvesting systems, limited information has been published on its effectiveness for sustainable management of water resources and urban water infrastructures. This article, discusses multi-dimensional benefits of rainwater harvesting systems for sustainable management of water resources and its role as a critical component of decentralized water infrastructures in urban environments.

Background and Aims: Some low-income, communities of-color in the United States rely on a complex mixture of unregulated private wells and septic systems and inadequate public drinking water and sewer services. The West End Revitalization Association (WERA) developed and used the community-owned and - managed research (COMR) to assess disparities in the built environment with a focus on the quality of publicly regulated sewer and water infrastructure. Methods: Community monitor (CM) training workshops and drinking water and surface water tests of fecal pollution were completed at private (target) and regulated public (referent) service households in three low-income African-American communities in Mebane, North Carolina. ArcGIS was used to map sewer and water infrastructure by race/ethnicity to assess disparities in infrastructure. We performed a cross-sectional household drinking water and sewer service survey and measured fecal pollution levels in drinking water and surface water supplies in the communities. Differences in turbidity (NTU) and fecal microbial indicator concentrations at target and referent sites in WERA neighborhoods (MPN/100ml) were evaluated using SAS version 9. Results: Maps of sewer and water infrastructure showed disparities in access to this infrastructure by race/ethnicity in Mebane, North Carolina. CMs collected survey data showing a mixture of failing private wells and septic systems and regulated public drinking water and sewer infrastructure. Septic system failure ranged from 11-18%. Higher turbidity levels were observed in private wells compared to regulated public drinking water (p<0.0001). There was little statistical evidence of differences in surface water fecal pollution at target and referent sites. Drinking water and surface water fecal pollution levels exceeded maximum contaminant levels at several target and referent sites. Conclusions: Drinking and surface water fecal contamination levels suggest a need for provision of improved water and sewer services to protect health in these underserved and marginalized EJ communities and more enforcement of regulations.

The standard water institutions, governance and infrastructure reform and policy prescription package of the 1990s and early 2000s, i.e., restructuring, private-public partnerships (PPP), establishment of an independent regulator, have not yielded positive results for South Africa. These water institutions and governance challenges are resulting in inadequate investments, and millions in South Africa not having access to basic water and sanitation services. The framework for water sector infrastructure funding models was designed to meet the challenges presented by the current and growing imbalances that exist between the supply of and demand for water in South Africa. The research results identified 7 overarching governance models for the funding, financing and development of water infrastructure projects in South Africa, i.e. Model 1: direct fiscal (NRF) funding, Model 2: ring-fenced special purpose vehicle (SPV), Model 3: SPV housing dedicated water infrastructure cash-flows, Model 4: stand-alone water institution with strong balance sheet, Model 5: public-private partnership (PPP) with equity, Model 6: private concession, and Model 7: private development. Various institutional options for consideration for the future management and development of water infrastructure were investigated and considered. The emerging model is considered to be a hybrid model consolidating the national water resources and regional bulk infrastructure functions and capabilities, with regional bulk infrastructure primarily being a water board (water services provider) function.

In late March, President Biden outlined his first major postpandemic priority—a massive infrastructure initiative called the American Jobs Plan. The US$2.2 trillion proposal includes everything from roads and bridges to climate resilience projects and home care, but water plays a key role. The plan provides $45 billion to replace all lead service lines in the country, $56 billion to support existing programs through grants and low-cost loans, and $10 billion to monitor and remediate per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in drinking water and wastewater. Congress has begun turning the American Jobs Plan into legislative language, and each chamber is working separately on a water infrastructure component. The Senate has already passed a bipartisan bill, the Drinking Water and Wastewater Infrastructure Act of 2021 (DWWIA). DWWIA doubles funding for the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF) program to $2.4 billion in fiscal year (FY) 2022 and scales funding up to $3.25 billion by FY 2025. The bill also reauthorizes the Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (WIFIA) and boosts funding for small and disadvantaged communities, lead service line removal, resilience and sustainability, and research. House committees are currently considering three major pieces of legislation with significant water infrastructure components, two related to drinking water and one to wastewater. The Climate Leadership and Environmental Action for our Nation's Future Act (CLEAN Future Act) is a climate-focused bill that seeks to decarbonize entire sectors of the economy. The bill's environmental justice component includes $4.14 billion for the DWSRF in FY 2022, $5 billion over 10 years to cover capital costs associated with PFAS treatment, $45 billion over 10 years to replace lead service lines, and $500 million over 10 years to improve drinking water system resilience. The Leading Infrastructure for Tomorrow's America Act (LIFT Act) is a more targeted version of the CLEAN Future Act meant to modernize the country's infrastructure and combat climate change, and includes many of the same drinking water provisions. The primary difference as it relates to water infrastructure is that the LIFT Act authorizes programs for five years, while the CLEAN Future Act authorizes programs for 10 years. The Water Quality Protection and Job Creation Act of 2021 provides $50 billion over five years to address wastewater and water quality challenges. This includes $40 billion over five years for the Clean Water State Revolving Fund program; $2 billion to capture, treat, or reuse sewer overflows or stormwater; $1 billion to implement PFAS treatment standards; and additional funding for pollution control programs, water resource management, and climate resilience. The size of the final package will likely be determined by its route to passage. Moderate Democrats would like to see a bipartisan compromise, which may ultimately pare down the plan's price tag and scope. Senate Republicans’ first two counteroffers came in at $568 billion and $928 billion—much of which would come from repurposing COVID relief funds—and excluded many of the provisions related to climate and less traditional infrastructure. Republicans have also ruled out any tax increases or a rollback of the 2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act as a means to pay for the new spending. If Democrats determine that the two sides are too far apart or that further compromise would jeopardize the legislation's timeline and overall impact, they may decide to bypass the filibuster and pass the American Jobs Plan through budget reconciliation—the same budgetary maneuver used to pass the American Rescue Plan with only a simple majority. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi (D-CA) has pointed to July 4 as a soft deadline for the House to complete its work on the American Jobs Plan, and Senate Majority Leader Chuck Schumer (D-NY) has made clear that DWWIA is just the first component of the Senate's work. As is often the case, the American Jobs Plan may look quite different from President Biden's original proposal if and when it becomes law. Nate Norris is the senior legislative analyst at the AWWA Government Affairs Office in Washington, D.C.; [email protected].

Water infrastructure and citizenship exclusion of Roma communities in Europe

From infrastructure to assistance for low-income customers to regulation mandates, the 117th session of the US Congress is shaping up to be busy for the drinking water community. A key driver has been the COVID-19 pandemic and the economic havoc it has caused. Investment in infrastructure is a traditional government strategy during economic slumps, and investment in water infrastructure has the added benefit of protecting public health and the environment. Hence, the American Rescue Plan Act (ARPA) of 2021, enacted last spring, provided US$10 billion to invest in water, broadband, and health sector infrastructure. The challenge for our sector was the broad strokes Congress used to paint this legislation and the fact that the water infrastructure provision channeled funds through city governments and failed to account for the regional nature of many water systems. This use of infrastructure investment to kick-start economic growth appeared again this fall as Congress considered two pieces of legislation in tandem: the Bipartisan Infrastructure Framework (BIF), or H.R. 3684, and the ambitious Build Back Better Act, or H.R. 5376. The BIF would reauthorize the drinking water and wastewater state revolving loan fund programs, reauthorize the Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act program, and provide $15 billion for lead service line replacement. It also would extend the “buy American” requirements for manufactured products to projects receiving federal support. The Build Back Better Act would provide an additional $9 billion to address lead in drinking water, either by replacing lead service lines in economically distressed areas or by replacing lead pipes and fountains at schools and day care centers. AWWA has developed a very conservative estimate that it will cost at least $60 billion to replace all of the service lines that will likely require replacement under the upcoming revised Lead and Copper Rule. That means the money in this year's legislation would be a nice down payment on that effort, but not a cure-all. The economic stress the country felt this year also gave new life to efforts to create an assistance program for customers having difficulty paying their water bills. An omnibus federal funding bill passed last December provided $638 million to help low-income customers pay their water bills. ARPA provided another $500 million. The BIF would mandate a study of the needs of low-income water customers and create a pilot grant program involving up to 40 water systems. The Build Back Better Act would provide $250 million for low-income customers. If these two bills pass, we will be studying how customer assistance programs work while at the same time rolling out more money for the programs. That's a reflection of how some members of Congress aren't sure how such programs should be structured, while others are adamant that low-income customers need help now. AWWA and its partner water organizations typically are not involved in defense legislation. However, there have been recent attempts to force regulation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in drinking water via the annual legislation authorizing programs at the US Department of Defense. Each year, these bills are called the National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA). A bonus for the water community last year was NDAA's requirement for better reporting of PFAS discharges by industry. In this year's NDAA deliberations, the House version of that legislation would require drinking water regulations for two PFAS compounds, which may be irrelevant since the US Environmental Protection Agency is well on track to do that anyway. The Senate version would not have that requirement, but would do something beneficial for drinking water providers: require US defense facilities to notify nearby water systems when PFAS are detected on or near their sites. A House–Senate conference committee will iron out a single NDAA and AWWA will be communicating its members’ concerns to conferees. Another topic to watch in the NDAA deliberations is cybersecurity. Requirements to report certain cyberattacks at critical infrastructure facilities—and that obviously includes drinking water systems—are in the House version and may end up in the Senate bill. AWWA and other organizations are communicating with Congress on such a program should be structured. As we approach 2022, expect deliberations on infrastructure, customer assistance, cybersecurity, and the pace of regulatory development to continue. Then add to that upcoming deliberations for the next version of the five-year Farm Bill. In the last Farm Bill, AWWA was successful in getting agricultural conservation programs to do a better job of protecting sources of drinking water. We will want to keep that momentum going and possibly make some administrative tweaks. The 117th Congress will be one to remember. Tommy Holmes is director of legislative affairs at the AWWA Government Affairs Office in Washington, D.C. He can be reached at [email protected].

This article examines the potential of space science technology for water infrastructure (WI) management. It defines space technology in detail, and when South Africa (SA) started using it as a tool. To explain the context, the different types of orbits, altitudes, and functions of satellites are given, as well as the challenges that satellites encounter in orbit, including the quantity and sizes of orbital debris also known as space junk. The article articulates the international and local challenges to WI and further introduces space technology as a tool that can assist to overcome the challenges. Legislation governing the application of space technology in SA is discussed and the different satellites owned by the various space agencies of Africa are outlined. A discussion on how space technology has boosted the economies and employment in Africa and South Africa is provided. How the various applications of the technology, such as remote sensing (RS), Earth observation (Eo), Geo-Information sciences, navigation, communication, safety, and security can assist WI management are discussed. Details about the involvement of various African and SA universities and colleges in space science programmes that benefit the communities are explained. Also outlined are some experiments performed on the International Space Station (ISS) that benefit the Earth and that could be useful to WI management.

The frequency and severity of natural disasters have increased significantly over the last two decades, and the length of time that the recovery requires is strongly dependent on the resiliency of critical infrastructure, particularly the drinking water and wastewater infrastructure. The goal of this research is to evaluate, analyze, and explore approaches to increase the resilience of water infrastructure. For this purpose, this study identified and investigated the challenges and risks imposed on the drinking and wastewater infrastructure by disasters, then proposed eight practical strategies for improving their resiliency. Eighty-seven articles from the existing literature were reviewed in detail, and 26 challenges and risks were identified and classified into four social, economic, environmental, and organizational categories. The results revealed that the speed and scale of the response needed in the affected communities are the two main organizational challenges, and salinity and vulnerability to flooding and heavy rains are the environmental challenges. Perception of communities and population growth are the social challenges, and low income and insufficient funding are the economic challenges. The results of this study revealed a need for policies that provide sufficient funding for the affected communities. The outcomes of this study will significantly help decision-makers to timely identify the challenges and adopt effective strategies to mitigate the impacts of natural disasters on the drinking water and wastewater infrastructure.

The role of informal small-scale water supply system in resolving drinking water shortages in peri-urban Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania

Located in the desert southwest New Mexico is a highly arid sparsely inhabited state mostly covered by mountains, high plains and desert. Water is a scarce resource. Over the past century drought has devastated the state. Water infrastructure funding is also increasingly scarce. Through a bipartisan effort New Mexico has implemented a sustainable water policy utilizing an interagency approach to water infrastructure project identification, prioritization and funding. Since inception the so-called Sustainable Water Infrastructure Management (SWIM) approach has logged over 800 proposed water/wastewater infrastructure projects in its growing knowledge bank. Of these projects more than 200 have been funded. Along with this, viable projects not yet funded receive ongoing assistance, guidance and support in their efforts to improve organization-wide performance utilizing management approaches and systems to increasingly move beyond utility management toward sustainability. Proposed projects not meeting initial uniform funding criteria also receive assistance in their efforts take actions to increase the likelihood of funding in the future. This paper is an overview of New Mexico’s uniform funding approach to bring about secure and sustainable water infrastructure in the state.

Adverse effects of climate risks on access to potable water are increasingly being acknowledged in sub Saharan Africa. Resilient infrastructure supported by appropriate governance arrangements, is therefore central to water security under these extreme weather events. For several decades, governments in sub Saharan Africa have developed governance arrangements including infrastructure and legislation to ensure water security. However, the effectiveness of policy consideration in resilience of potable water infrastructure to climate risks/extreme weather events as well as their seasonality has been a neglected area. Using Zomba rural in Southern Malawi as a case study, this study was therefore aimed at addressing this gap by assessing the effectiveness of local water policy responses to extreme weather events using the 2015 flooding effects on potable water in Zomba rural in Southern Malawi as a case study. The study firstly analysed rainfall and extremes indices for evidence of trends of climate risks in Zomba during the period from 1982 to 2015. To understand the effects of the 2015 flooding on water infrastructure and access to potable water as well as evaluate policy provisions for responses to climate risks, the study further applied a qualitative approach through policy document review, key informant interviews, focus group discussions. The results suggest a generally decreasing annual rainfall pattern with high variability by seasons and frequent occurrences of droughts and flooding. The annual rainfall decrease was not statistically significant at α = 0.05 level, whereas the extremes indices were statistically significant. However, the study found that current policy frameworks are more biased towards drought preparedness as compared to flooding preparedness. For instance, the 2015 floods destroyed vital water supply infrastructure and the responsible institutions could not rehabilitate the damaged infrastructure, leaving communities with intermittent and no supply of potable water for over six months. On the other hand, during dry seasons and drought conditions, the intakes are above the water level. These results show that the present rural water infrastructure is vulnerable and not resilient enough to extreme weather events. In addition, the water institutions are especially not prepared to handle flooding events and their impacts. In this regard, water legislation and infrastructure designs do not adequately take into consideration the effects of extreme events on access to potable water, making water security a challenge in rural Malawi.

Abstract. The Drinking Water Supply System (SPAM) is a basic community need that must be provided by the government. Water availability is currently a problem in rural areas of Krangkeng District. The condition of the region often experiences drought during the dry season and only 59.27% of people have access to adequate drinking water. Every year the government provides assistance in the form of physical development and water supply via tank trucks. The lack of public awareness in the sustainable implementation of SPAM has resulted in this problem recurring every year. With this phenomenon, community empowerment efforts are needed to create increased community capacity and active community participation in managing the drinking water supply system in Krangkeng District so that it can be sustainable. This research aims to identify community empowerment alternatives described in the aspects of implementing rural SPAM in Krangkeng District using a qualitative descriptive approach. The research results show that there are aspects that are problematic in implementing SPAM in terms of planning for the provision of infrastructure and drinking water services that are not yet structured. Technically, there is limited water infrastructure that can be utilized, there is no management institution, minimal funding allocation related to SPAM, minimal regulatory aspects and there has been no effort to improve from a social perspective related to the sustainability of SPAM. Based on these aspects, the community empowerment alternatives that can be implemented are education and awareness about the importance of drinking water use, community involvement both as management institutions (pokmas) and as users, involvement in collaborative advocacy networks with external parties, and involvement in monitoring and evaluation. It is hoped that this research can help stakeholders in Krangkeng District in efforts to mitigate problems with the implementation of SPAM and the sustainability of water resources in the future.