Social Connectedness and Cognitive Function in Later Life: GrimAge as an Epigenetic Mediating Pathway.

ObjectiveTo better understand life course influences affecting cognitive function and decline in later life, we explored sex and race/ethnicity differentials in the relationship between a history of psychiatric, emotional, or nervous problems and cognitive functioning in later life, while accounting for early life disadvantage and relevant covariates.MethodsMulti-level growth curve models examined associations between psychiatric history and cognitive functioning, and differences by sex and race/ethnicity (SRE), in 20,155 Health and Retirement Study (1995-2014) participants aged 65 or older, by estimating cognition scores and plotting trajectories of change with age by SRE.ResultsA history of psychiatric, emotional, or nervous problems was significantly related to cognition scores and rates of decline. Hispanic and Black participants had significantly lower cognition scores at age 75 and steeper rates of decline than White females, and Black race and the Hispanic race-sex interaction erased the protective effects of being female.ConclusionsOur findings indicate that members of minority groups with a history of psychiatric problems evidence lower cognitive function in later life, and as a result, have a greater need for community-based long-term care than their peers without this history. Future research should include longitudinal analyses of different components of cognitive function, specific psychiatric diagnoses, and life history data that capture socioeconomic and psychosocial experiences throughout the life course. Population level findings as reported here, along with aggregate findings from similar studies, can inform interventions and policies regarding support for populations that are vulnerable to mental illness and to subsequent cognitive decline.

Background:There is some evidence to suggest that social isolation may be associated with poor cognitive function in later life. However, findings are inconsistent and there is wide variation in the measures used to assess social isolation.Objective:We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the association between social isolation and cognitive function in later life.Methods:A search for longitudinal studies assessing the relationship between aspects of social isolation (including social activity and social networks) and cognitive function (including global measures of cognition, memory, and executive function) was conducted in PsycInfo, CINAHL, PubMed, and AgeLine. A random effects meta-analysis was conducted to assess the overall association between measures of social isolation and cognitive function. Sub-analyses investigated the association between different aspects of social isolation and each of the measures of cognitive function.Results:Sixty-five articles were identified by the systematic review and 51 articles were included in the meta-analysis. Low levels of social isolation characterized by high engagement in social activity and large social networks were associated with better late-life cognitive function (r = 0.054, 95% CI: 0.043, 0.065). Sub-analyses suggested that the association between social isolation and measures of global cognitive function, memory, and executive function were similar and there was no difference according to gender or number of years follow-up.Conclusions:Aspects of social isolation are associated with cognitive function in later life. There is wide variation in approaches to measuring social activity and social networks across studies which may contribute to inconsistencies in reported findings.

BackgroundSocioeconomic position (SEP) across the lifecourse is positively associated with cognitive function in later life in studies of Western populations, with later SEP likely mediating the effect of early life...

Although the role of the neighborhood environment in health is well documented, little is known about how the neighborhood affects cognitive function. This study aimed to examine how physical and social neighborhood environments affect cognitive function in later life. Furthermore, we examined the interaction effect of physical function and economic status on the relationship between the neighborhood environment and cognition. Data were obtained from a locally representative three-wave longitudinal study of older Japanese aged 74–86 years (N = 1064). We used subjective measures of two physical environmental factors (public facilities, such as community centers, and accessibility) and two social environmental factors (availability of social participation programs and social inclusion). MMSE was used to assess cognitive functioning. The results of multilevel analyses showed that the availability of social participation programs was positively associated with cognitive function and that the degree of social inclusion was negatively associated with cognitive function. Moreover, physical functioning had an interaction effect on the relationship between social inclusion and cognitive functioning. Among older adults with lower physical function, cognitive function was lower in those living in more socially inclusive neighborhoods than in those living in less socially inclusive neighborhoods. These results suggest that creating opportunities for social participation in neighborhoods contributes to maintaining cognitive function, whereas fostering social inclusiveness in neighborhoods contributes to older adults’ continued aging in place, even after their cognitive and physical function declines. These results reinforce the need for neighborhood-level interventions to maintain cognition in later life and facilitate aging in place despite cognitive decline.

Green space, life-course socioeconomic disparities and cognitive function in later life: A longitudinal analysis.

While social capital is recognized as an important protective determinant of cognitive function in later life, there is a lack of research examining the potential moderators and mediators in the mechanisms linking social capital to cognitive function. This study investigated the moderating role of education on the relationship between social capital and cognitive function among older adults in urban Chinese communities. Data were derived from a community survey conducted in Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China, in late 2015. A quota sampling method was applied to recruit respondents aged 60 years or older from 16 communities in the Gusu district. The final analytic sample size was 446. Multiple group analysis was applied to test the proposed model. The results show that cognitive social capital was significantly associated with cognitive function in the high education group only. Structural social capital was not significantly associated with cognitive function. The findings highlight the important role of social capital in influencing cognitive function in later life. Social capital interventions could be particularly useful as a preventive approach to help older adults sustain their cognitive function levels. Policy and intervention implications are discussed.

Social connectedness and cognitive decline

Objectives: We examine whether childhood family well-being is associated with cognitive functioning and to what extent the association between the family context and cognitive functioning is explained by adulthood resources. Methods: Data are drawn from the National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project Wave 3 (2015/2016; N = 3361). We measured cognitive functioning using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment. Childhood family factors included family-life happiness, family structure, and family socioeconomic status. Education, social connectedness, self-mastery, and self-rated health were assessed as adulthood resources. Results: Respondents who grew up in a happy family had significantly higher levels of cognitive functioning. The formal mediation test suggests that a happy family life during childhood has a positive association with later cognition, in part, by enhancing self-mastery in adulthood. Discussion: Our findings provide evidence that positive childhood experiences are linked to later life cognition. The sense of control people have over their life circumstances is one potential pathway explaining this association.

Based on the life course perspective, attachment theory, and the convoy model, we examined the association between early-life maternal relationship quality and cognitive function in later life. We also examined whether adult social relationships mediate this relationship. We utilized longitudinal data (2006-2020) from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS, 50 years or older) and latent growth curve models to examine the association between early-life maternal relationship quality and cognitive function over time and the potential mediating effects of adult social relationships. Early-life maternal relationship quality was measured with a four-item scale assessing early-life experiences with mothers. Older adults who reported higher early-life maternal relationship quality had higher initial levels of cognitive function (β = 0.118, p < .001), but they experienced a steeper cognitive decline (β = -0.014, p < .01), supporting the cognitive reserve model. Mediation analysis showed that social contact and social strain in adulthood partly explained the link between early-life maternal relationship quality and initial cognitive function. Specifically, individuals with higher early-life maternal relationship quality generally had more social contact and less social strain in adulthood. Meanwhile, social contact in adulthood was associated with higher initial cognitive function, while social strain was negatively associated with initial cognitive function. This study highlights the links between early-life maternal relationship quality, adult social relationships, and cognitive function in later life. Although social support is widely reported as beneficial for cognitive function, our results show that the absence of social strain is more protective of later-life cognitive function.

Despite the emerging literature linking information communicative technology (ICT) use and cognitive functioning in later life, whether the association varies as a function of social environment and birth cohort remain an open question. Using nine waves of panel data from the U.S. Health and Retirement Study (2002-2018), we examined within-person asymmetric effects of transitioning into and out of Internet use on cognitive functioning, and whether the associations vary depending on living arrangement and across birth cohorts. Results from the multilevel models indicated that transitioning into Internet use was associated with improved cognitive functioning at a given wave and decelerated cognitive decline over time. Similarly, ceasing to use the Internet was associated with worse cognitive functioning and accelerated cognitive decline. Further, such linkages between Internet use and cognitive functioning were moderated by living arrangement and birth cohort. The detrimental effect of ceasing Internet use was worse for those older adults who live alone. Transitioning into and out of Internet use was unrelated to changes in cognitive functioning among recent HRS cohorts, namely, the War Babies (b:1942-47) and Early Baby Boomers (b:1948-53). These findings highlight the interplay between technology, social environment, and cognitive functioning in later life. The salubrious effects of adopting an ICT technology, such as the Internet, as well as deleterious effects of ceasing to use such technology, underscores the importance of promoting digital literacy and access to ICT technologies among the older adult population.

Education is among the most robust predictors of cognitive health outcomes in later life. However, few studies have comprehensively evaluated whether and how much of this effect is explained by occupational exposures. This study aims to determine if and how much pre-retirement occupational exposures (occurring before age 60) mediate the association between education and cognitive function at age 65+. We use data drawn from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) and Occupation Information Network (O*NET) data. Informed by previous research and theory, we conducted Confirmatory Factor Analyses of occupation-level exposure measures using a longitudinal HRS-O*NET linked data set we created, and we identified 2 latent factors: occupational hazards and occupational complexity. Among initially employed adults (age 51-60 at baseline), we used Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to evaluate the association between education and cognitive function at age 65+, and the role of our 2 occupational factors in mediating this association. The measurement and structural models both had good model fit (TLI, CFI ≥ 0.95, SRMR < 0.08). We found (a) that education remained a critical predictor of cognitive outcomes in later life even when accounting for occupational exposures, and (b) only hazardous exposures mediated the association between education and cognitive function in later life (a2b2=0.02, p = .01), explaining about 17% of the effect of education. These findings suggest interventions designed to decrease exposure to hazardous occupational exposures could reduce some of the cognitive disadvantages in later life associated with lower levels of education.

Early schooling plays an important role in shaping cognitive development, both due to the level of academic rigor and the social environment of primary and secondary schools. This is reflected in current racial disparities in cognitive function in later life. Older minorities who attended predominantly White schools with more resources experienced significant cognitive benefits. This study explores whether there are benefits to cognitive functioning in later life from having attended socially diverse schools in early life. We examine the effects of having attended schools composed primarily of different race peers—race discordant schools (RDS)—among Black, Hispanic, and White older adults. Using retrospective and prospective data from the Health and Retirement Study, we examine the association between RDS exposure and four measures of cognitive function (working memory, episodic memory, mental status, overall cognitive function). We assess function at age 55 and 70, and examine change in functioning between age 55 and 70. We find that RDS exposed Blacks and Hispanics experience significant benefits in cognitive function at age 55, but only Blacks experience benefits at age 70. RDS exposed Whites reported higher overall working memory at age 70 relative to Whites in non-RDS schools, suggesting a cognitive benefit from diversity. Results suggest that exposure to more racially diverse school environments have potentially beneficial effects on cognitive function over the life course. Our findings suggest that the cultivation of diversity in schools could be an important long-term public health investment.

This study examines the bidirectional relationships between social support (family vs. friend) and cognitive function among older Chinese adults, and whether these associations differ by source of support and by urban and rural settings. Data were from three waves (2014, 2016, and 2018) of the Chinese Longitudinal Aging Social Survey (N = 2,700; mean age = 68). Dynamic panel models with fixed effects (ML-SEM) were applied to examine the reciprocal relationships between social support and cognitive function and determine whether these associations are moderated by hukou status (rural versus urban). In the overall sample, higher levels of friend support but not family support predicted subsequent cognitive function. In contrast, influences from cognitive function on subsequent family or friend support were not detected. However, hukou status moderated these associations. Both family and friend support promoted enhanced cognitive function only among rural older adults. Conversely, cognitive function was positively associated with subsequent family support among urban older adults but negatively associated among rural older adults. The results provide evidence for the social benefit and health selection mechanisms that operate in source-specific (family, friend) and context-specific (rural, urban) ways in China. These findings also indicate the need to consider the cultural norms and structural context when examining the bidirectionality of social support and cognitive function in later life.

Prior research indicated that diverse work experiences in early and middle life stages are associated with cognitive function in later life. However, whether life course patterns of work history are associated with later life cognitive function in China remains unknown. Data were derived from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study, and 5,800 participants aged 60 years or older were included. We used sequence analysis to identify the work history patterns between ages 18 and 60. Growth curve modeling was performed to evaluate how the work-history patterns are associated with global and domain-specific (i.e., mental intactness and episodic memory) cognitive function. We identified 8 work patterns, distinguished by duration, transitions, timing, and sequence of work history. Compared with individuals exposed to lifelong agricultural work, those engaged in lifelong nonagricultural employed work had better cognitive function in later life and experienced slower rates of cognitive decline in both global cognitive function and the mental intactness domain. In addition, individuals who shifted from agricultural to nonagricultural employed work early (around age 30) had better global cognitive function in later life, whereas the association was not significant for such a transition later (around age 50). Our study highlights the importance of the duration, sequence, and timing of transitions in work history for cognitive health among older Chinese. Future interventions and policies aimed at improving cognitive function should fully consider the cumulative and dynamic nature of work from a life course perspective.

BackgroundLiving alone may be associated with greater risk for social isolation and loneliness. Living alone, social isolation, loneliness, and limited engagement in social activity have all been associated with poorer cognitive function in later life. Hence, if individuals who live alone are also at greater risk of isolation and loneliness, this may exacerbate poor cognitive function. ObjectiveTo determine whether people living alone are more at risk of social isolation, feelings of loneliness, and limited social activity, and to examine the associations between living alone and cognitive function in later life. MethodBaseline (N = 2197) and two-year follow-up (N = 1498) data from community-dwelling participants, age ≥65 years, without cognitive impairment or depression at baseline from CFAS-Wales were used. Linear regression analyses were conducted to assess the association between living arrangement and cognitive function at baseline and two-year follow-up. ResultsPeople living alone were more isolated from family and experienced more emotional loneliness than those living with others, but were not more isolated from friends, did not experience more social loneliness, and were more likely to engage in regular social activity. Living alone was not associated with poorer cognitive function at baseline or two-year follow-up. DiscussionThese findings have positive implications and suggest that people who live alone in later life are not at greater risk of poor cognitive function at baseline or two-year follow-up. Social isolation may be more associated with poor cognitive function.