Snakes and Ladders: A technological approach to tool maintenance byproducts using module flake categories

The study of retouching, reshaping, and rejuvenation in lithic technology has traditionally focused on finished tools, overlooking the by-products of these processes, particularly microdebitage. This has led to an incomplete understanding of the dynamic behaviours associated with tool maintenance and a lack of crucial information about prehistoric technological strategies. Here we address this knowledge gap. Specifically, we introduce a classification system for lithic by-products resulting from retouching, reshaping, and rejuvenation techniques, categorising them into five modules (M0 through M4) based on lithic technological analysis. This methodology integrates the chaîne opératoire approach to analyse flakes without size thresholds. To demonstrate our approach, we apply it, coupled with raw material sourcing, to lithic assemblages from two Middle Palaeolithic sites in Armenia, Kalavan 2 and Ararat-1 Cave. This enables a precise reconstruction of tool use-life and, in turn, the mobility strategies of Pleistocene hunter-gatherers. Our findings demonstrate that microdebitage (by-products) can contribute to a holistic view of decision-making, revealing patterns in tool maintenance and raw material provisioning. The module system provides insights into the production of ‘ghost tools,’ which are not present in the archaeological record, as well as curation behaviours and economic decisions regarding raw materials that were previously difficult to discern. By shifting the focus from finished artefacts to by-products, this framework enhances our ability to interpret lithic assemblages and understand the adaptive strategies of prehistoric hunter-gatherers.

New Light on the Earliest Hominid Occupation in East Asia

Change in raw material selection and subsistence behaviour through time at a Middle Palaeolithic site in southern France

There are multiple hypotheses for human responses to glacial cycling in the Late Pleistocene, including changes in population size, interconnectedness, and mobility. Lithic technological analysis informs us of human responses to environmental change because lithic assemblage characteristics are a reflection of raw material transport, reduction, and discard behaviors that depend on hunter-gatherer social and economic decisions. Pinnacle Point Site 5–6 (PP5-6), Western Cape, South Africa is an ideal locality for examining the influence of glacial cycling on early modern human behaviors because it preserves a long sequence spanning marine isotope stages (MIS) 5, 4, and 3 and is associated with robust records of paleoenvironmental change. The analysis presented here addresses the question, what, if any, lithic assemblage traits at PP5-6 represent changing behavioral responses to the MIS 5-4-3 interglacial-glacial cycle? It statistically evaluates changes in 93 traits with no a priori assumptions about which traits may significantly associate with MIS. In contrast to other studies that claim that there is little relationship between broad-scale patterns of climate change and lithic technology, we identified the following characteristics that are associated with MIS 4: increased use of quartz, increased evidence for outcrop sources of quartzite and silcrete, increased evidence for earlier stages of reduction in silcrete, evidence for increased flaking efficiency in all raw material types, and changes in tool types and function for silcrete. Based on these results, we suggest that foragers responded to MIS 4 glacial environmental conditions at PP5-6 with increased population or group sizes, ‘place provisioning’, longer and/or more intense site occupations, and decreased residential mobility. Several other traits, including silcrete frequency, do not exhibit an association with MIS. Backed pieces, once they appear in the PP5-6 record during MIS 4, persist through MIS 3. Changing paleoenvironments explain some, but not all temporal technological variability at PP5-6.

A company should maintain an adequate or optimal level of inventory so that production operations can run smoothly and efficiently. What needs to be considered in this case is that the required raw materials are always available, so as to guarantee the smooth production process. However, the amount of inventory should not be too much because this will harm the company. Too much inventory will increase maintenance costs and storage costs in the warehouse. In addition, the amount of inventory that is too much can also increase the likelihood of losses due to damage and loss of quality that can reduce company profits. And vice versa, the amount of inventory that is too small will hamper the production process so that the company will suffer a lot of losses including: the machine does not work as it should, many workers are unemployed, and can even result in the cessation of the production process. This study aims to determine how the calculation of raw materials, what is the total cost of raw material inventory if the company establishes an EOQ (Economic Order Quantity) policy, what is the limit or point of ordering raw materials needed by the company during the grace period at PT.Bentoel International Investama in Malang.The population used is the supply of tobacco raw materials at PT. Bentoel International Investama, where this research was conducted by interview and documentation. The variable in this study is the supply of raw materials. The analysis used is the EOQ (Economic Order Quantity) method.The results of the study, if using the EOQ method in 2017 the cost savings of Rp 40,290,256,931, while in 2018 the cost savings of Rp. 44,388,428,549. Thus there is a difference between inventory policies carried out according to the company with EOQ calculations. It can be concluded that the supply of raw materials every year has increased raw materials, the frequency of purchasing raw materials when using raw materials when using the EOQ method is 2 times in one period, the limit for ordering raw materials needed by companies when using the 2017 EOQ method is 218,176.7 kg, while in 2018 it will be 210,853 kg. The total cost of raw material inventory calculated according to EOQ is less than that spent by the company, so there is a cost savings of raw material inventory

This chapter begins by defining the exchange of products manufactured in the towns for agricultural produce and raw materials as 'the great commerce of every civilized society'. The supply of mineral raw materials forms an interesting contrast with the supply of vegetable and animal raw materials. The cotton industry has attracted more attention than any other in discussions of the Industrial Revolution, and since it grew vastly while continuing to use a vegetable raw material. Cotton has for long been treated as the type par excellence of the new manufacturing industry, the lead-off industry in the take-off into sustained industrial growth. The importance of the changes in raw material supply and in the transport system can be illustrated from the writings of the economists of the period as well as traced in the narrative economic history, especially in the discussions of the limits of economic growth.

Neanderthals were widespread during the Middle Palaeolithic (MP) across Europe and Asia, including the Caucasus Mountains. Occupying the border between eastern Europe and West Asia, the Caucasus is important region regarding the Neanderthal occupation of Eurasia. On current radiometric estimates, the MP is represented in the Caucasus between about 260-210 ka and about 40 ka. Archaeological record indicates that several culture diverse MP hominin populations inhabited the Caucasus, but the region complex population history during this period remains poorly understood. In this paper, we identify for the first time the archaeological evidence indicating contacts between two culture diverse MP Neanderthal populations in the North Caucasus and discuss the nature of these contacts. Basing on the lithic assemblages that we excavated at Mezmaiskaya cave in the north-western Caucasus (Kuban River basin) and Saradj-Chuko grotto in the north-central Caucasus (Terek River basin), dating from MIS 5 to MIS 3, and comparative data from other MP sites in the Caucasus, we identify two large cultural regions that existed during the late MP in the North Caucasus. The distinctive toolkits and stone knapping technologies indicate that the MP assemblages from Mezmaiskaya cave and other sites in the west of North Caucasus represent a Caucasian variant of the Eastern Micoquian industry that was wide spread in central and eastern Europe, while the assemblages from Saradj-Chuko Grotto and other sites in the east of North Caucasus closely resemble the Zagros Mousterian industry that was wide spread in the Armenian Highlands, Lesser Caucasus and Zagros Mountains. The archaeological evidence implies that two culture diverse populations of Neanderthals settled the North Caucasus during the Late Pleistocene from two various source regions: from the Armenian Highlands and Lesser Caucasus along the Caspian Sea coast, and from Russian plain along the Sea of Azov coast.

The identification of lithic raw material sources used to produce tools and the characterization of their management are essential when studying a prehistoric population. For the Middle Paleolithic, it may be one of the crucial keys to understanding the technological and typological variability observed within the lithic assemblages, particularly in the Rhine Valley where the scarcity of flint and geological complexity go hand in hand with the exploitation of a wide diversity of the raw materials by Neanderthal groups. In this paper we propose an analysis of raw material management on the only two Middle Paleolithic sites in the French part of the Rhine Valley to have been actually excavated and well-documented and which have yielded sufficient quantities of lithic material: Achenheim “Sol 74,” an open-air find horizon dating to the Saalian glaciation, and Mutzig “Rain,” a multi-layer rockshelter settlement from the beginning of the Weichselian glaciation. These two sites occupy quite different environments and belong to different chronological periods but they probably had access to the same raw material sources. The analyses carried out combine petrography, observation of the natural surfaces on the lithic artifacts and the reconstruction of reduction sequences and chaînes opératoires. For both sites, this approach has allowed us to highlight the exploitation of raw materials which were primarily sourced locally. It has also revealed other techno-economic behaviors such as the circulation of certain kinds of products, especially retouched tools made from good quality flint. Our observations allow us to propose interpretations regarding the functioning of Neanderthal groups and the functions of sites within the territory that they exploited.

A model for raw material management as a response to local and global environmental constraints

Control over the supply of raw materials is a must for every company that aims to avoid misuse in the form of fraud or waste, because in the business world problems often occur in carrying out production. The purpose of this study are as follows (1) to determine the raw material inventory control applied to CV. Yan Utama Corporation, (2) to determine the number of orders for CV raw material supplies. Yan Utama Corporation on economical order quantities. This research is a qualitative descriptive research, the location of this research is at CV. Main Yan Company Sidobakti street, Paregi Purwodadi Village. This research technique by way of observation, interviews, and documentation. Data analysis was carried out using a tabular approach and a formula approach. The result of this research is CV. Yan Utama controls the supply of pure chemical raw materials using the EOQ method. The number of orders for raw material inventory CV. Yan Utama on the EOQ is 2,936 kg of raw materials which can be ordered every time an order is placed. The frequency of purchasing raw materials in CV. Yan Utama when using the EOQ method which should or is more efficient is 7 times the purchase of raw materials in one period (1 year), while new orders are made by CV. Main Yan is 24 times a year. So that with this evaluation, the time to order raw materials can be more considered with an interval of every 51 days when ordering pure chemical raw materials. Keywords: Inventory Control, Inventory Orders, Raw Materials.

The current techno-economic study of two well-preserved Late Pliocene lithic assemblages from the Nachukui Formation, in the West Turkana region in North Kenya, provides new evidence of planning and foresight in raw material procurement, and management from 2.34 Ma onwards, testified to by the selection of specific raw materials. One of the most noteworthy results ensuing from this study, carried out in combination with geological surveys, petrographic analyses and lithic assemblage analyses, is the existence of substantial differences in raw material provisioning and management between Late Pliocene assemblages, geographically and chronologically close. These differences are related to the degree of selectivity for raw material sizes and morphologies as well as to the way they were processed, rather than to variations in resource availability.

Construction management is a crucial aspect in the governance of building construction project partnerships. The complexity and challenges in building construction projects, such as multi-stakeholder involvement, uncertainty, and time and cost pressures, signal the importance of the construction management role. Good partnership governance can help address these challenges by improving transparency, accountability, and communication between parties. This study aims to find a partnership management model in determining the best vendors in the implementation of the Biosafety Level (BSL) 2 Building Construction project and describe the proposed partnership management model in determining the best vendors in the implementation of the BSL 2 Building Construction project. This research is a research on dynamic system methods through the development of simulation models with the help of Powersim studio 10 software. The research was carried out at PT. Nella Putri Banjaran KSO PT. Bettindo Bintang Perkasa. Data were collected through field studies and literature studies. The results of the study show a significant trend of increasing delays in the supply of raw materials and project costs, it can be concluded that there are fundamental problems in project management. Persistent delays in the supply of raw materials indicate obstacles in project planning, implementation, or supervision. Solid partnerships between the various parties involved in the project, such as project owners, contractors, consultants, and subcontractors, can be key in addressing these issues. The partnership management model in determining the vendor for the implementation of the BSL 2 building construction project by reducing the average delay in the supply of project raw materials, improving project time management, reducing the average increase in project costs by improving project cost management. Through long-term agreements, joint planning, and effective monitoring mechanisms, supply delays can be minimized.

Crossing the Pleistocene–Holocene transition in the New Guinea Highlands: Evidence from the lithic assemblage of Kiowa rockshelter

The quality of a product depends on how the manufacturer applies the supply of raw materials used. The application of a good supply of raw materials can expedite the production process. There are many factors that affect the smooth production process. One of the factors that can affect the smoothness of the production process is the supply of raw materials. Raw materials in the production process include raw materials, semi-finished materials and finished goods. In running its business, Kedai Surabi Gapura experiences difficulties in terms of implementing raw material supplies considering the large number of orders that the shop receives every month so that Kedai Surabi Gapura cannot determine the number of priority raw material needs that must be purchased according to production needs. Surabi Gapura requires an appropriate method of supplying raw materials for production. By applying the raw material inventory classification method, it is hoped that Kedai Surabi can find out the priority classification of raw materials used based on raw material prices, in this case related to capital. Shop owners need to implement raw material inventory planning and control because to find out what the difference is between the costs incurred for purchasing raw materials and the amount of raw material requirements according to the daily production target. In addition to the raw material inventory classification method needed in an effort to expedite the production process, the shop also needs to apply the right raw material ordering method in order to save costs incurred such as transportation costs for sending raw materials, raw material storage costs, ordering costs, raw material maintenance costs arising from inventory. By applying the EOQ method for reordering raw materials, it is hoped that the Surabi Gapura Shop will place orders in economical quantities to determine the point of reordering raw materials so that the costs incurred by the Surabi Gapura Shop are efficient.The research method used in this study is to use a quantitative descriptive method. In this study the method used aims to determine the appropriate method of inventory of production raw materials with the raw material inventory classification method and the correct raw material ordering method in order to save costs incurred such as transportation costs for sending raw materials, raw material storage costs, ordering costs, maintenance costs for raw materials arising from inventory. By applying the EOQ method for reordering raw materials.From the results of calculations using the POM QM For Windows software based on the results of data processing using the ABC class classification analysis method for raw materials from 15 types of raw materials, they can be classified based on their respective classes according to the amount and investment value or rupiah spent to obtain these raw materials. Then by using the calculation of the EOQ method with the POM QM For Windows software, business owners can find out the optimal number of orders in the production process, namely the optimal number of orders is at 8,869.52 units, that is, if the demand in one day is 250 units.

The criteria to define the Middle Paleolithic in East Asia have traditionally been presence/absence of archaic Homo sapiens fossils, biostratigraphy, lithostratigraphy, the Middle-Late Pleistocene transition, and lithic technology. In this paper, we examine the use of the Middle-Late Pleistocene shift as a valid criterion for characterizing the Middle Paleolithic in East Asia. Our review indicates that the most representative “Middle Paleolithic” sites in China (Zhoukoudian Locality 15, Dingcun, Xujiayao, Dali) all have chronometric ages that bracket the Middle-Late Pleistocene transition. However, the age range for these sites is extremely wide, extending from the middle Middle Pleistocene (c. 500 ka) to the middle Late Pleistocene (75 ka). This very large chronometric span suggests that the Middle-Late Pleistocene transition (140–100 ka) is of little use for defining a distinct Middle Paleolithic in East Asia. Other evidence to support a distinct East Asian Middle Paleolithic is also not strong, particularly distinct changes in lithic technology. Accordingly, we argue that an “Early” Paleolithic, representing the originally designated Lower and Middle Paleolithic sites, is more applicable to the uniqueness of the East Asian archaeological record.