Slovak travertines as decorative stones – brief geology, history of quarrying and use

One of the types ofgoods popular in recent years are the items products by means of which one decorates gardens, parks, buildings of public using, private territories, including houses both outside, and inside as sculptures, figurine, fountains, tile, balusters, fireplaces, landscape sculptures as elements of landscape design. Decorative stones - one of the materials from which these products are made. Unfortunately, in the reference and methodical literature which is used in the expert practice, there are no methodical recommendations on the determination of the cost of goods from a decorative stone. Therefore working out of an algorithm of determination of the cost of such goods for import on the customs territory of Ukraine and their market value will help objectively and reasonably to perform merchandising examinations. At the first stage of carrying out of such researches the expert should receive the certain list of the initial data about the goods. The basic commodity characteristics of the goods from a decorative stone are specified in the conclusion of State Gemmological Centre of Ukraine which should be requested by an expert from the body or the person which appointed examination. Market value of products from a decorative stone can be defined in several ways depending on the presence of the initial data, proposal in the market ofsimilar property, presence of the information on sale of similar products. Cost ofproducts is determined on the basis of the National standard № 1 provisions within the limits of the comparative approach taking into account replacement and supply and demand principles. If the expert doesn’t possess the data necessary for use of the comparative approach then the cost ofproducts can be determined by the calculation method. We offer to use the order of market value determination of the goods on the basis of certain components addition to the cost of the goods for import on the customs territory of Ukraine.

Objective To establish an accurate method for estimating the indoor gamma dose rate from decorative stones.Methods Combining a room model with decorating conditions,the gamma dose rates and dose rate conversion factors (DCF) at 1 m above the floor in the room center were calculated with the Monte Carlo simulations,and the calculation results were verified through experiments.Based on the results,the limit of radionuclide contents in stone materials was further discussed.Results The DCF increases with the increase of area or thickness of decorative stones in the same room.The increase of DCF with the thickness of decorative stone is approximately linear.The DCF also increases with the area of decorative stones,but the increasing trend slows down.For the same decorative stones,the smaller the room,the larger the increase of gamma dose rate.Experimental results were consistent with the simulation results within ± 20％.Conclusions The increase of indoor gamma dose rate depends not only on the radionuclide contents,but also on the area and thickness of the decorative stones as well as the room size.The method used in this study can be used to estimate,more accurately than ever,the additional external exposure to residents due to decorative stones,and it provides a theoretical basis for revising the limit standard on radionuclide contents in decorative materials. Key words: Building material; Monte Carlo; Dose rate; External exposure

Arising mainly from its exceptionally varied suites of igneous and sedimentary rocks, Cornwall has a rich variety of building and decorative stones that were extensively exploited, both for local use and for export, before concrete and brick came to dominate construction in the twentieth century. Many of the types of building stone, such as elvan and sandrock, do not occur outside Cornwall, so local stone provides much character to the local built environment. Granites were extensively worked in the eastern part of the Carnmenellis Granite (mainly in Mabe parish), in the St Austell Granite (Luxulyan, Carn Grey and the china stone areas) and on Bodmin Moor (De Lank, Hantergantick, Cheesewring, etc.), as well as in the Kit Hill, Tregonning and Land's End granite masses. The predominant type used was the ‘coarse grained megacrystic biotite granite – smaller megacryst variant’ of Hawkes & Dangerfield. A significant trade in granite developed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, employing large numbers of skilled quarrymen. Finished granite was exported all over the world; many iconic buildings in London and other major cities use Cornish granite. A tourmalinized granite, luxullianite, was an important decorative stone, and was used for the Duke of Wellington's sarcophagus in St Paul's Cathedral. Schorl rock is often found in older buildings in the granite areas. Most pre-nineteenth century granite building did not use quarried stone but used ‘moorstone’ obtained from boulders lying on the surface of the granite uplands. Large quantities of ‘minestone’ have been used in vernacular buildings, past and present, and in some medieval churches, sourced from the waste tips of metalliferous (both alluvial and vein operations) and china clay workings. Allied to the granites are the fine-grained elvans of granitic composition, usually intruded in the form of dykes. Greisening often improves the durability of elvans, which have been extensively used in some of the finest stone buildings in Cornwall, such as St Austell church tower, Antony House (NT), Trelowarren, Place (Fowey) and the Georgian buildings of Lemon Street, Truro. The best-known elvan quarries were at Pentewan, which yielded a freestone capable of fine carving. However, not all buildings described by architectural historians as being of Pentewan Stone came from Pentewan. Another important elvan was Newham Stone, widely used in the older buildings in Truro. Tremore elvan was used, together with luxullianite, mainly as a polished decorative stone to line Porphyry Hall at Place in Fowey and in other high-status buildings. Basic igneous rocks include an Upper Devonian metadolerite at Cataclews Point, west of Padstow, which provided the extremely durable Cataclews Stone, used from medieval times onwards for fonts and church carvings in the area around the Camel estuary. A more unusual stone, produced by carbonatization of an ultrabasic intrusion, is Polyphant Stone, mainly used for interior use and by sculptors, composed of a mixture of talc, chlorite, and various calcium and magnesium carbonates. The Polyphant Quarry was recently reopened to supply stone for the rebuilding of Newquay parish church and to supply stone for sculpting. Allied to Polyphant Stone is Duporth Stone, obtained from the cliffs of Duporth Bay, south of St Austell, which was used in the pillars of Truro Cathedral. Basic hyaloclastite was the main stone used in the great Norman Church of St German's in SE Cornwall. The Lizard ophiolite complex provided a source of serpentine for building and for the manufacture of polished slabs; ornaments made from serpentine are still produced. Slaty mudstones and sandstones of Devonian and Carboniferous age have been extensively used for traditional buildings throughout Cornwall, nowadays much slaty mudstone is still used for building and for Cornish hedge building. The Upper Devonian Delabole Slate Quarry has yielded high-quality roofing slate from Tudor times onwards but there are many other large active and disused roofing slate quarries in the Tintagel area and elsewhere in Cornwall, such as the underground slate workings at Carnglaze, now a tourist attraction and concert venue. Devonian sandstones, usually of turbiditic origin, are widely used for vernacular building in south Cornwall, and Upper Carboniferous turbidite sandstones are used in north Cornwall. The geologically youngest building stone, seen in the Newquay and Padstow areas, is a cemented bioclastic Quaternary beach sand, laid down at a time of high sea level during an interglacial as a raised beach. It is known locally as ‘sandrock’ but is a relatively weak building stone. St Carantoc's Church at Crantock and St Piran's Church on Perran sands were largely built of it. Supplementary material: A more detailed review of the various granite and elvan quarries that have been worked in Cornwall is available at http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/SUP18675 .

Economic feasibility of Gabal Um Takha leucogranitic intrusion, South Sinai, Egypt: Integrated remote sensing, geochemical, aeromagnetic, and geotechnical approach

The use of granite as a building and decorative stone is increasing day by day. In the surroundings of Peshawar basin, good outcrops of granites are exposed. In order to determine the suitability of granitic rocks of Peshawar basin to be used as building or decorative stones, petrographic and geotechnical studies were carried out on rock samples collected from Shewa Shabaz Garhi, Ambela, Bagh, Utla and Malakand. Based on the present investigations the studied samples were found to be within the recommended values of American Standards of Testing Materials (ASTM) for the use of building and decorative purposes.

Wide varieties of igneous rocks are extensively utilized as stones for decoration purposes and as a potential source for building. With the use of petrological (mineralogical and chemical) and physico-mechanical analyses, the current work accurately mapped the Dokhan Volcanics (DV) and utilized them as decorative stones and their prospective in building materials using Frattini’s test. Field observations indicate that metavolcanics, DV, and monzogranites are the principal rock units exposed in the studied area. The DV rocks are characterized by a dense series of stratified, rhyolitic to andesitic lava interspersed with a few pyroclastics. Andesite, andesite porphyry, dacite, and rhyolite are the primary representatives of the selected DV. The lack of infrequent appearance of mafic units in the current volcanic eruptions indicates that the primary magma is not mantle-derived. This is supported by their Mg# (17.86–33.57). Additionally, the examined DV rocks have Y/Nb ratios above 1.2, suggesting a crustal source. The role of fractionation is interpreted by their variation from andesite passing through dacite to rhyolite, which is indicated by gradual negative distribution groups between silica and TiO2, Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, Co, and Cu from andesite to rhyolitic lava. Additionally, a wide range of widely used DV rocks like Y/Nb, Rb/Zr, and Ba/Nb point to crustal contamination in the rhyolitic rocks. The partial melting of the lower crust can produce andesitic magma, which ascend to higher crustal levels and form lava of calc-alkaline. A portion of this lava may split, settle at shallow crustal depths, and undergo differentiation to create the DV rocks. Based on the results of physico-mechanical properties, the studied samples met the requirements for natural stone to be used as decorative stones, whether as interior or exterior installations. The pozzolanic assessment of the studied rocks revealed their usability as supplementary cementitious materials in the building sector.

The North Fork Owyhee River Wilderness Study Area (ID-016-040), within the southern Owyhee Mountains in southwest Idaho, encompasses 49,470 acres, of which the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Bureau of Mines were asked to 39,745 acres. Hereafter, the terms study and refer only to the smaller acreage. Field work for this report was carried out between 1984 and 1985. No mines or prospects are located in the area, although a few borrow pits exist just outside its southern boundary. The only identified resource is blocky basalt suitable for use as building or decorative stone. The area has a low resource potential for gold, silver, zinc, and uranium. The potential for petroleum and natural gas and geothermal energy is unknown. Character and Setting The North Fork Owyhee River Wilderness Study Area is located in the southern Owyhee Mountains in southwest Idaho, about 75 mi southwest of Boise (fig. 1). The area is situated along a stream-dissected plateau with canyons as deep as 400 ft. The area is underlain by a thick pile of Miocene (about 5 to 24 million years before present) volcanic flows and minor interbedded sedimentary rocks. A thick rhyolite ashflow tuff sheet is exposed throughout most of the area; the tuff is overlain in the southern part of the area by another rhyolite ash-flow tuff and a younger sequence of thin basalt flows and interbedded sedimentary rocks. The older ash-flow tuff fills a collapse caldera formed due to the emplacement of the tuff. Several small-displacement normal faults of various trends cut the rocks. The rhyolite ash-flow tuffs are also intensely fractured locally. There are no known mines, prospects, claims, or mineral leases in the area or its immediate vicinity. Several small borrow pits for road construction material exist along the southern boundary (fig. 2). Identified Resources The only identified resource in the area is blocky basalt suitable for use as building or decorative stone. The thin, blocky slabs of basalt occur over an area of several square miles in the southern part of the area. Mineral Resource Potential Gold, silver, zinc, and uranium have minor resource potential in the wilderness area (fig. 2). The potential for geothermal energy and petroleum and natural gas is unknown. Two mining districts occur in the region near the wilderness area: the South Mountain (silver-leadzinc) and the Silver City (gold-silver) districts. Mineralization in the former takes the form of silverlead replacement veins and silver-lead-zinc skarn within regionally metamorphosed rocks. The Silver City district, in particular the Delamar mine area, is characterized by epithermal mineralization along Miocene normal faults and fractures within a contemporaneous, inferred silicic ring complex. Anomalous concentrations of antimony, arsenic, copper, mercury, selenium, and zinc are associated with the gold-silver deposits. Relatively high concentrations of arsenic, molybdenum, silver, and zinc have been detected in samples collected in the wilderness area. A similar geologic environment (caldera-related silicic volcanic rocks and contemporaneous faults and fractures) and trace-element anomalies similar to those in the Silver City district suggest that

This paper reports the peculiarities of the Dnipropetrovsk region’s geological structure and related mineral resources used as building materials. The basis of the region’s resource potential is explored and active deposits of building stone, decorative stone (granite), molding sand, building sand, carbonate rocks (mainly limestone), brick and tile raw materials, gypsum, mineral paints, etc. The resources of building and decorative stones are confined to the formations of the Precambrian age, while the formation of clay and sand deposits is mainly dated to the Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary age and is associated with the processes of chemical and mechanical weathering of granites, granodiorites, gneisses and other crystalline rocks. Carbonate rocks, which are important for metallurgy and other industries, are found in the territory of the region among Palaeozoic (Carboniferous) and Neogene depositios. The industrial reserves of construction minerals, the main enterprises developing deposits of the Dnipropetrovsk region are given. Based on the results of the research, a conclusion was made regarding the potential readiness of the mineral and raw material base of building materials and the main market players to participate in the post-war reconstruction of the regions of Ukraine logistically close to Dnipropetrovsk region.

Based on the study of the characteristics of materials, structure, textures and physical properties of metacarbonate rocks at Tan Lap area, Cho Don district, Bac Kan province, it is possible to provide the initial possibility of using these rocks as decoration stones. Methods applied in the study include field investigations and sampling; sample analysis for thin-section microscopes, for the chemistry of sicilate and physical properties. The results indicate that metacarbonate rocks consist mainly of marbles which are allocated within the 3rd unit of the upper part of Mia Le formation (D1ml2). The rocks are thick layered structure, granoblastic texture, fine- to medium-grained marbles. Cao is the predominate chemical composition while heavy metals and radioactive elements are of very low contents. The rocks are pure white, exhibiting high color fastness and gloss. The outcomes of this study could serve as a scientific basis for guiding in exploration, exploitation, and utilization of mineral resources (marble) in the Tan Lap area particularly as well as in Vietnam's territory.

Travertines in the Mariovo area are an extremely important raw material for obtaining architectural and decorative stone used in construction. In this region, there are six locations where travertine is exploited and this paper presents the results obtained from the mineralogical and geochemical tests of samples taken from the Mariovo travertines. The tests performed show that these are relatively young sedimentary rocks that are basically made of calcite, and in which the concentration of arsenic and heavy metals is extremely low. This finding supports the further use of these rocks as architectural and decorative stone.

Radon is a colorless, odorless half-life radioactive gas that that can be emission from Decorative stones such as granite, marble, etc. Inhaling Radon gas over a long period may increase the effective dose received and the subsequent increase in lung cancer among patients. In this cross-sectional-descriptive study, Radon 222 and Thoron concentrations was measured in four Decorative stones of warehouse by Radon meter portable RTM1688-2 model in three stages. In total, 24 concentrations of 24 hours of indoor air and 24 concentrations of 4 hours of Radon 222 and thoron of the background air were measured. Then, effective dose received of Radon 222 and Thoron was calculated by UNSCEAR and ICRP equations, respectively. The mean indoor air radon and background air were 74±37 and ± 34 16 Bq/m 3 , respectively. The mean concentration of Radon of indoor air in Decorative stones of warehouses in DSW1, DSW2, DSW3 and DSW4 is 72.50±34, 98.25±43, 34.42±18 and 88.92±51 Bq/m 3 . The mean effective dose received by the staff from Radon 222 and Thoron at 8 working hours is 0.53±0.18 and 0.05±0.03 mSv/y and in 16 working hours is 1.05±0.36 and 0.11±0.07 mSv/y, respectively. Also, the mean effective dose received by staff from Radon at 8 and 16 working hours is 0.58±0.2 and 1.16±0.41 mSv/y. Mean radon concentration in indoor air and the mean effective dose received by staff is lower than the standards level. Decorative stone of warehouses is the resources accumulation of Radon gas that can be reduced by doing corrective actions. Keywords: Radon 222, Thoron, effective dose, Decorative stone and warehouses

An Exceptional Lower Carboniferous Historical Heritage Stone from Belgium, the ‘Pierre de Meuse’

This study examined how Lorestans` decorative stone exporters can play an international role in the world market. The study is a field study and the population consists of all of the Lorestan`s stone firms. Lorestan is one of the biggest stone exporter provinces of Iran. For this reason, a simple random sampling technique was used to select the respondents surveyed for this study, a total of 101 questionnaires were administered to respondents chosen from about all 130 of the province stone firm managers and their vice presidents; statistical tools were used to test the hypothesis such as: T student (to determine whether there was a significant difference between the average of the population and that of the sample) and Chi square (to review the lack of significant differences between the observed frequency and expected frequency of tests). To gather information, library resources, questionnaires and interviews were used. To test research questions, six hypotheses with a conceptual model were designed to examine the relationship between the key success factors and the exports of the stone firms. Assumptions in the study, all with 95% confidence were accepted. The findings indicated that there was a significant positive relationship between KSFs and successful market entry. The study also showed that services and distribution channels had respectively the most and the least effects on successful market entry for Lorestan`s firms producing decorative stones. Key words: Corporation, stone producer enterprises, the global market, decorative stones, the key success factors, export, international marketing.

Amongst its promotions at the start of the nineteenth century, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce included calls for British marbles. The calls were repeated annually for two decades but what initiated them was more than just an altruistic desire to promote indigenous sources of statuary and decorative stone. Supplies of both, especially statuary marble, greatly relied upon imports from France and Italy. At the time of the first calls these were jeopardised by the revolutionary and Napoleonic upheavals and other sources of stone became necessary, but the Society never cited political pressures as a driver behind their calls for British marbles. The term ‘marble’ was to be interpreted widely, and the response brought limestones, serpentines, granites and true marbles from across the British nations including much from southern Ireland. Two Gold Medals were awarded, one for a spectacular revelation of Devonshire marbles, and one for sheer guts and determination shown in bringing to market a fine marble from a remote part of Scotland. Within a decade of the Society's initiative there was a substantial renaissance in the use of decorative stone in Britain and much came from new indigenous sources. Although a good British white statuary marble never emerged, some spectacular coloured and textured British decorative stones became widely available and well used. Art, manufactures and commerce were the direct beneficiaries, but it is unlikely that the Society's initiative alone was responsible for this ‘marble renaissance’ of the mid-nineteenth Century.

The present research deals with the most important devises and various techniques used to identify the different types of stones, decorative stones and mortars used for construction of Al-Tanbugha El-Merdani mosque at el-Darb Alhmar in Cairo. Different examination and analysis techniques were used to identify the various types and composition of rocks, decorative stones which adorn the lower parts of mosque walls, as well as building materials and mortars. Polarizing microscope was used to identify the minerals and rocks. Beside to scanning electron microscope equipped with energy dispersive X-Ray spectrometry. X-Ray fluorescence XRF was also aid detecting the elements. Laser induced Breakdown Spectroscopy LIBS was also employed. The obtained results were gathered in an attached table .