Situating Sensitivity Readers in the British Trade Publishing Ecosystem

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a unique traditional medicine in China and has been passed down to the present day with its unique theoretical basis and treatment model. The introduction of the concept of evidence-based medicine into traditional Chinese medicine and the scientific evaluation of its clinical efficacy are essential for the better development and transmission of TCM. Randomised controlled trials have always been the "gold standard" of clinical trial evidence due to their strict inclusion and exclusion criteria and strict control of the data collection process, but the specificity of the TCM treatment model, the holistic, ambiguous, diverse and complex nature of the data, and the concomitant events in the research process make it difficult to conduct randomized ontrolled trials in TCM. Real World Study (RWS), which is conducted in actual clinical settings with broad inclusion and exclusion criteria to obtain treatment effects and long-term clinical outcomes as endpoints, can be used for long-term evaluation of treatment measures based on patients' preference. Real world studies allow for the long-term evaluation of treatment measures based on patients' preference, and are able to evaluate the overall effects, adapting to the holistic concept of Chinese medicine and the characteristics of evidence-based treatment. This paper summaries the data characteristics and data processing methods of real world studies in TCM, with a view to providing a reference for real world studies in TCM.

In this work Deborah Hauptmann deals with the relationships between mind, body, architecture and the city. Major authors ranging from Henri Bergson and Walter Benjamin to Henri Lefebvre and Gilles Deleuze are discussed in order to open up thinking on the roles of perception and the cognitive sciences in today’s society. Various themes are explored. Matter and mind are considered as kinds of multiplicities that affect our distinctions between subject and object. A theoretical framework is carefully constructed and argued in detail, allowing us to grapple with the existing problems of a rapidly changing field of disciplinary actions. The author looks at how vitalism has been applied to space, offers a view of the city through the question of who is allowed to claim right to the city and addresses the idea of the virtual and emergent. She examines the problem of experience by posing questions pertaining to both voluntary and involuntary memory. She concludes by making concepts surrounding biopolitics and noopolitics explicit and investigates their past discourses, demonstrating that they are still pertinent to both the field of architecture and philosophy. This study should be regarded as an original contribution to the discipline of architecture in its broadest sense.

《文心雕龍》「道」與修辭關係之研究

中學世界史教科書中「科學革命」的呈現 (1949-2014)

Real-world cases describing (product) variability in production systems are rare and often not accessible. Thus, researchers often use toy examples or develop fictitious case studies. These are designed to demonstrate their approach but rarely to compare multiple approaches. In this paper, we aim at making variability modeling evaluations comparable. We present and provide a reusable set of four real-world case studies that are easy to access, with artifacts represented in a universal, variability-model-agnostic way, the industrial Product-Process-Resource Domain-Specific Language (PPR DSL). We report how researchers can use the case studies, automatically transforming the Domain-Specific Language (DSL) artifacts to well-known variability models, e.g., product feature models, using the Variability Evolution Roundtrip Transformation (VERT) process. We compare the expressiveness and complexity of the transformed feature models. We argue that the case studies with the DSL and the flexible transformation capabilities build a valuable contribution to making future research results more comparable and facilitating evaluations with real-world product lines.

Explaining how people direct their behavior, establish intentions, make choices and implement those choices through their actions, is the fundamental task of psychology. Psychological researchers and theorists have attempted explanations of these matters using a rich but bewildering variety of terms, concepts, theories, orientations, perspectives and traditions. Many theorists and researchers have called for theoretical integration and conceptual clarification in their areas of interest. Part I of this three-part thesis was termed a Theoretical Exploration to identify its purpose as exploring theories, terms and concepts employed in the psychological literature, clarify usage and identify commonalities. Part II of the thesis was termed an Empirical Investigation; it investigated and demonstrated some associations between constructs from different theories. The demonstrated associations suggested directions for theoretical integration and conceptual clarification. Part III provided more detailed directions for theoretical integration by identifying important and fundamental commonalities between theories. Part I, the Theoretical Exploration ranged over a number of theories including: Social Cognitive Theory, Personality Theory, Theories of Emotion, Motivational Theories, Theories of Value, and Evolutionary Theory. In addition to these broad theories, more specifically oriented theories were considered: Achievement Motivation Theory, Expectancy-Value Theory, Holland’s Theory of Vocational Interests, and Social-Cognitive Career Theory. Specifically oriented theories are often based on a wider theory, (Social-Cognitive Career Theory, as the name suggests, is based on Social-Cognitive Theory), and so are influenced by the wider theories on which they are based. However, theories reciprocally influence each other, often in subtle ways; they share terms and concepts, but usages might differ. Part I identified historical origins, theoretical links and conceptual commonalities as an indicator of possibilities for integration. The thesis took course choice and career intention as exemplars of intentionally directed action. Using these exemplars of behavior, the study discussed intention formation, its relationship with choice, and the varieties of meanings associated with usage of the term choice. Part I Theoretical Exploration argued that empirical analysis, while essential, is only one part of scientific procedure. Part I stressed the importance of logical analysis of data, careful definition of terms, and the identification of systems and relationships as fundamental to scientific process. In Part II, an empirical investigation was undertaken to identify how participants enrolled in courses could be classified into “types” based on their personality traits. These personality types were demonstrated to be associated with their career intentions and career motivations. No significant association was demonstrated between personality type and course choice, though some interesting patterns were discerned. Significant and meaningful associations between personality type and career intention were demonstrated. A link between personality type and satisfaction with career was found. Associations were found between motivations and course choice, and motivations and career intentions. The empirical findings of this study are consistent with the Five- Factor theory of personality, Achievement Motivation theory, and Expectancy-Value Theory. A combination of the commonalities of a variety of theories and the empirical results of this study indicates one method of theoretical integration using Five-Factor Theory. Consideration of the similarities between Five-Factor theory and modern Expectancy-Value theory together with the empirical results of this study indicate ways in which traits, especially trait emotion, link with the adoption of values. Traits and associated values contribute to motivations for career intention. These findings and indications have important ramifications for job seekers, prospective employers, and course advisors. Part III returned to a wider view of theoretical integration. Using Five-Factor Theory as an overarching theory, Part III described the important commonalities between theories, to indicate a systemic understanding of decision-making and behavior.

Regional natural resource management is increasingly being implemented through collaborative arrangements. Theoretically, collaborative arrangements draw together multiple stakeholders to achieve a holistic approach to management. However, there is no comprehensive underpinning theory to guide implementation. In response, the resource and environmental management literature has been dominated by the search for procedural theory. Encouraged by the history and experience the planning field has with decision-making in multi-stakeholder settings, planning theory - specifically communicative planning theory - has been encouraged as procedural theory for regional natural resource management. However, there has been limited empirical evaluation of this concept - particularly in natural resource management contexts. The aim of this research was to identify whether communicative planning theory represented an appropriate procedural theory to guide the implementation of regional natural resource management. This research addressed this aim through a comparison of the concepts and ideas comprising communicative planning theory with the forces shaping natural resource decisions and actions in practice within a collaborative approach to natural resource management. Qualitative research techniques were used to examine, in depth, a single case study of the implementation of the National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality in the Condamine Catchment. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with twenty-six stakeholders including mayors, farmers, members of non-government organisations, and representatives of State and Commonwealth agencies. The results of this research provide valuable understanding of how decisions are made and what role natural resource management objectives play within collaborative decisionmaking processes. This thesis builds theory relating to when, where, and if natural resource management objectives may be achieved through collaborative arrangements. Natural resource decisions and actions within the Condamine Catchment were shaped by three key forces. Firstly, the institutional arrangements that framed the collaborative approach influenced how organisational stakeholders would interact while undertaking natural resource management. Secondly, the structure of the decision-making processes influenced how decisions were produced. Finally, the characteristics (personalities, interests, agendas, and experience) of individual participants influenced the shape natural of resource decisions. Collectively, these forces discouraged the development of an integrated approach to natural resource management. Under the influence of these three forces natural resource management objectives played a secondary role to political manoeuvring within decisionmaking processes in the Condamine Catchment. Stakeholder agendas, motivations and interests became the primary concern as stakeholders implementing the National Action Plan became focused on controlling decisionmaking processes, instead of focusing on implementing natural resource management itself. Stakeholder relations were characterised by conflict as stakeholders competed for control of the decision-making processes. Communicative planning theory does not adequately identify or contend with the complex contextual forces shaping natural resource decisions within the Condamine Catchment. Nor does this concept offer clear direction on how to overcome the identified barriers to the development of an integrated approach to management. These research findings suggest that communicative planning theory does not represent an appropriate procedural theory to guide the implementation of regional natural resource management. Collaborative models of implementation are currently gaining dominance as the preferred delivery vehicle of regional natural resource management. This research implies that instead of searching for a meta-theory to guide implementation, the resource and environmental management field may be better served by developing a theoretical framework that makes practitioners aware of, and provides the tools to address, the context sensitive barriers that exist towards implementing natural resource management within multistakeholder settings. This research contributes towards the development of this understanding, and the tools necessary to unlock collaborative planning practice in individual settings.

Therer are many literary researches/interpretations in Poetic Style, focusing on ”the Book of Song”, which is worthwhile exploring deeply, since Ming and Ching Dynasty. YUAN Mei is a literary crtitic of poetry theory in Ching Dynasty had written many comments on ”The Book of Song”, though he had not written a monography on ”The Book of Song”. I collected all those features of Yuan Mel opinions on ”The Book of Song” by YUAN Mei, organized them and found their characters follows: (1) Style Theory (2) Context Theory and (3) Technique Theory. (1)Style Theory points out ”The Book of Song” is not a classics but a literature, not a textual criticism but a poetic context; and including some kinds of answering poem and love poem. (2) Context Theory refers to the disposition assertion, true character and honest personality, and arouses creative power of mind. (3) Technique Theory goes to the rhyme anf rhythem expression, finds sentence features, no necessary to learn and can express originally, their sound and rhythem naturally and expressively, each poem has its own sound and form. The theory of YUAN Mei is useful, though few possesses paradox and prejudice, reaches a higher achievemment in the history position and value in his time and in the poem theory history, because it abolishes a feudal rule, to obtain a literary freedom progressive on the level of the history meanings, enters into a new world, and makes a breakthrough, where the classics researcher cannot realize and they are no dare to touch of those topics, of those poetic theory, and of ”The School of the Book of Song”.

With long-term argument of authenticity, historical romantic fiction is hard to find its due location between literature and history. It is, therefore, an urgent core issue remaining to be resolved how we can effectively balance the split between “literature fiction” and “historical truth” when facing such writings, either from work creators’ view points or for theoretical research critics. Academic investigation into authenticity of history romances is mostly based on recordation of history as a criterion, which preset attitude itself generates a few problems, causing relevant research to chiefly focus on either the larger difference between fictitious narratives and historical ones or merely on such fundamental work of story authentication. Thinking of historical books as authentic, researchers tend to neglect the fact historical narratives probably embody a few ideologies when shaping up; besides, even when historical romances bear the same appearance as historical books for one event, it cannot definitely lead to the conclusion historical romance editors copied historical books for the sake of history authenticity. Sometimes two kinds of writings adopt the same narrative standpoint, whereas totally different ideologies are echoed from inside. This thesis is founded on post-modern history as theoretical framework, re-examining the authenticity and integrity of historical narratives. Through two events in historical romances for Sui and Tang dynasty, “Waganjsai story” and “The Palace Coup of Shanwumen,” we look into issues of inheritance and adaptation between historical narratives and romantic fictions, with the goal of re-structuring a new research course enabling historical romances to get rid of original “authenticity limitation” existing between history and fiction, and inquiring into such writings from more complete and deep viewpoints.

This thesis is a re-evaluation of Lin Shu (1852-1924) and his literary translations. Lin Shu is one of China’s most influential translators. He initiated modern literary translation in China, and his translations imported new ideas, literary concepts, styles and techniques from the West. These, in turn, influenced the emergence and development of modern Chinese literature. Nevertheless, Lin Shu and his translations have been belittled and even dismissed for various reasons over the years. The emergence and development of target/culture-oriented translation theories offer the possibility of re-assessing Lin Shu and his translations. The re-assessment of Lin Shu and his translations in this study is based on target/culture-oriented translation theories, which emerged in the 1970s. Target/culture-oriented translation theories focus on the mutual influence between a translation and its target culture, especially on the influence of a translation on the target culture and readers as a criterion for successful translation rather than examining whether the target text is faithful to the source text, as in the traditional linguistic approach. These target/culture-oriented theories can effectively explain the translational phenomenon of Lin Shu, as Lin Shu translated with the needs of the target culture and readers in mind. He attached great importance to the cultural function and influence of his translations during a period of historical transition in China. The criticisms of Lin Shu and his translations in China and elsewhere have largely been negative, often highlighting political issues - his endorsement of the constitutional Qing monarchy and his conservative attitude to the New Culture Movement - as well as his free translation method. Target/culture-oriented translation theories offer a framework for the re-assessment of Lin Shu and his translations that bypasses these narrow approaches. Adopting target/culture-oriented translation theories, this thesis examines Lin Shu’s translations in a trans-cultural context. Lin Shu based his translations on the needs for the Chinese culture and readers of that time, which was clearly embodied in his choice of, and response to, the originals works. The prefaces and postscripts that he wrote for his translations illustrate the new cultural and literary factors that Lin Shu introduced into China. In this respect, Lin Shu’s translation of La Dame aux Camelia is perhaps the most famous case study of his translation method. Through a comparative analysis of the Target Text (TT) and Source Text (ST), the thesis discusses the ‘truthfulness’ of Lin Shu’s translation, and stresses that ‘truthfulness’ lies in seeking poetic equivalence rather than formal equivalence between the target and source texts. We argue that poetic equivalence is similar to Nida’s principle of correspondence, but is beyond his dynamic equivalence. It lays special stress on literary or aesthetic equivalence. Poetic equivalence in Lin Shu’s translations relates to the stylistic expression in China’s literary language and is therefore intrinsic to sinicization. Lin Shu’s skill in classical Chinese is central to our notion of poetic equivalence. However, I argue that Lin Shu’s translation strategy is actually also beyond equivalence. It is primarily embodied in his constant adaptation of the original to the perceived needs of Chinese culture and the acceptability of his translations to Chinese readers. Adaptation includes omission, addition, alteration and abridgment. In terms of target/culture/reader-oriented translation theories, Lin Shu’s adaptations were acceptable in the cultural context of his time. In brief, this study clarifies Lin Shu’s contribution in introducing Western culture and literature into China. The study also stresses the cultural influence of Lin’s translations on modern Chinese culture and on later generation of Chinese writers and translators. This thesis concludes that Lin Shu played a role of utmost importance in the establishment and evolution of early-modern and modern Chinese translation, particularly of modern literary translation in China. Therefore, Lin Shu is the father of modern Chinese literary translation.

Liu Zhi-ji (661~721 A.D.), styled Zixuan, was a famous historian at the beginning of Tang Dynasty; Shih-t'ung written by him is the first and the most systemic specialized work of historical theory in China; its content is extensive and profound, amply expounding the proper way of ruling a country, stating and explaining principles of human relationships, having a detailed description of the origin and development of history as a science, the general form of historical sects, and the principles and methods of compiling books of history before Tang Dynasty, and establishing his ideal historical theorem by means of criticism. A history must rely on the words to be handed down for generations perpetually; therefore, when narrating the history, how to make use of the diction appropriately so as to present objective historical facts is the most crucial issue, and, it's in fact the blending of ”Wen (literary grace)” and ”Zhi (content).” To make a comprehensive survey of Shih-t'ung, although it does not has a chapter or section about ”Wen (literary grace)” and ”Zhi (content),” its chapters of ”Lun-zan,” ”Zai-wen,” ”Yanyu,” ”Xu-shi,” ”Jian-shi,” ”He-cai,” ”Za-shuo-Ⅱ,” and ”Za-shuo-Ⅲ” have many parts involving ”Wen (literary grace)” and ”Zhi (content)” with brilliant exposition; hence, the research aimed at this scope to analyze in four aspects as follows:Ⅰ. Asking for truth, and adjusting and conforming to the customs of times-explaining that the words in a book of history must reflect the historical facts objectively. Ⅱ. Displaying the ”Wen (literary grace)” but not overly embellishing, and ”Zhi (simplicity)” but not rough-stressing attaching importance to the words in the book of history, but with moderation and restraint on embellishment. Ⅲ. Differentiating literature and history, and a special talent is required for writing a history-illustrating that compiling the history is different from writing a composition, and being against the flowery literary style's infiltrating and affecting the books of history. IV. The style of valuing ”Wen (literary grace)” or ”Zhi (simplicity)” should be changed with the times, and people should write in contemporary words-against the idea of only ancient wording is elegant, and upholding ancient phraseology blindly. The conclusion is, Liu Zhi-ji advocated equally emphasizing ”Wen (literary grace)” and ”Zhi (content)”, and took seeking the truth as the basic idea. In addition to deeply analyzing the viewpoints of ”Wen (literary grace)” and ”Zhi (content)” in Shih-t'ung, the research expects to be helpful for understanding the issue that people paid attention to as the literary theory at the beginning of Tang Dynasty.

This MD thesis explores the relationship between air and public health from early civilisations to the present day. Through examination of the changing relationships the thesis aims to identify, and critically explore, contemporary problems in public health theory and practice. This is a thesis primarily in the history of medicine or, more specifically, the history of public health. The thesis adopts an accepted five-stage framework for historical research. Within the framework, the thesis utilises two further, well established aspects of historical enquiry. First, it addresses the research questions by using historical case studies. Secondly, the historical research incorporates inter-disciplinary components, in particular the inclusion of ethics. The first case study initially explores air and health in ancient civilisations, especially within Greek medicine and philosophy, and then examines connections and relationships with ideas about air and health in mid-nineteenth century Britain. The second case study traces the changing relationship between air and public health from the mid-nineteenth century until about 1970, through examining developments in smoke pollution policy and scientific understanding of the effects of smoke on health. The third case study covers a period of three decades up to the present day. A piece of air pollution epidemiological research called quantitative risk assessment (QRA) is used as a vehicle through which to investigate philosophical, ethical and policy considerations in contemporary public health theory and practice. The fourth case study explores the approach to dealing with climate change. The approach is used as an instrument to probe utilitarianism as the moral foundation of public health, to explore other ethical frameworks, and to examine the relevance for environmental work within public health. Conclusions from each case study are drawn, and analysis of the links between the four case studies provides recommendations for public health theory and practice.

One of the development features of the academic research in the Qing Dynasty is the emergence of prospective of academic history. Confucians in the Qing Dynasty held great ambition to distinguish boundary between disciplines and carefully analyze boundary and difference among various kinds of knowledge of Classics, Shi, Zi and Wen through this perspective. So, this paper will discuss, under this perspective, the classification of distinguishing the academic chapter and examining the origin and branch Ruan Yuan Circle did against the literature in 18th century of the middle of the Qing Dynasty which leaded it to free from constraint of writing being for conveying the truth and promoted literature to stand alone to become a potential school of pure literature emerged in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic. In this paper it holds the opinion that behind the dispute of parallel prose and prose in the Qing Dynasty it is not completely the result of debate between Sinology and Song Learning but Qing Confucians should hold a bigger target. Therefore, the writer basically puts in order literature views from the Tang Dynasty, Song Dynasty to the middle of the Qing Dynasty and gets the results that the theory of writing being for conveying the truth was deep in scholars’ mind, whether the “truth” refers to social function of music education or formal meaning of heavenly principles and natural law. In short, writing should primarily link truth, translate truth and convey truth, and especially through the way of compiling collection it further commit and promote the effect of spreading this theory. Facing thousand-year long obstacles, scholars of Ruan Yuan Circle struggled to hold the opinion that the works in the Six Dynasties should be the very literature, and even collected and explored school vein of literature from Wenyanzhuan of Confucius to The Four Books of the Min Dynasty with the purpose that made literature to be an independent discipline different from Neo-Confucianism, study of Chinese Classics, Historical Science and Confucianism. As a result, they took theory of verse and prose and Zhao Min Selected Works as their theoretical basis and first criticized the works of eight great writers, praised highly by the later generations, in the Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty in thought that the content of these works were all in the fields of the Classics, History and Confucianism but not writings. They, therefore, through discrimination and propagation of theory, stated that literature should have features of antithesis and rhyme on form and content and should express one’s feeling by using rhetoric but not be restricted to outmoded conventions and old laws. Secondly, they showed their spirit of being practical and realistic through the way of worshipping scholars of the six dynasties and declared that their concept of literature didn’t words without basis. The Preface of the Selected Works held the principle that it would not select anything but literature writing, and that’s why it was thought highly by Ruan Yuan Circle. Under the study style of character being the first in the Qing Dynasty, Ruan Yuan was the first putting forward the view of ancient Chinese fiction sharing the same origin and school with verse and prose which resulted that the research to Selected Works was badly influenced and it embodied in analysis to Annotation of Li Shan and even thought on the same level of Xv Xuan, Xv Kai and Cao Xian, Li Shan. Therefore, scholars in the Qing Dynasty thereby opened another scholastic trend of science of name and object system, car and clothes in palace, and grass, wood, bird and beast in the Selected Works. The scholars in Ruan Yuan Circle not only introspected ancient Chinese and the Eight Great Men of Letters of the Tang and Song Dynasties, but also promoted the research of Dragon-carving and the Literary Mind. Besides, the emergence of rudiment of viewpoint of literature history was inherited and praised by literary historians in the early Republic. This achievement was formed on the basis of the prospective of literary history. Its influence involved until Zhang Taiyan, Liu Shipei and Huang Kan in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic who all inherited and proposed the theories that the basic lesson was that writing should be form with rhetoric and that the ancient writers were all Confucians in the Min Dynasty. On the other hand, they didn’t accept completely but did some change and even criticized Ruan Yuan in some place. Now, it went into the nest phase of complicated and versatile literary transformation.

Interactive whiteboards are becoming increasingly popular in classrooms in Australia and many parts of the world and purportedly have a potential to transform learning. However, the extent of their utility is yet to be realized. Current research on interactive whiteboards suggests that the interactivity component is what fosters learning, yet there is a dearth of research that specifies how a higher level of interactivity is achieved. Research on interactive whiteboards is critiqued for being technologically, rather than pedagogically, focussed and lacks a theoretical underpinning to support data analysis. However, the literature suggests it is a combination of technical and pedagogical interactivity that achieves interactivity, which is claimed to foster learning. As a result, this study investigates how technical and pedagogical interactivity intersect and the implication for teaching and learning. Thus, examining what shape of interactivity exists in each learning episode. Consequently, the current research adopts a Cultural Historical Activity Theory framework in attempt to explain how enhanced interactivity is achieved. In addressing the main hypothesis a qualitative case study methodology is used including the following data collection means: observations, classroom videos, interviews and planning documents. The four cases consist of four primary school teachers and their respective classes whose classrooms are equipped with permanently installed interactive whiteboards. The results indicate that technical interactivity exists within pedagogical interactivity and thereby is most usefully analysed within in a pedagogical context. In contrast to what most of the interactive whiteboard research literature advocate, technical interactivity and pedagogical interactivity in themselves are not sufficient to understand the interactive potential of this technology. There are other sociocultural and sociohistorical elements that need to be considered in order to investigate interactivity around interactive whiteboards. It is proposed in this thesis based on the findings that the more interactivity conducted in class with interactive whiteboards, the greater the learning. Yet, no learning episodes observed in this study led to teaching achieving the highest levels of interactivity as measured by the five stage interactivity framework developed by Sweeney (2008). In addition, there is variability in how interactive whiteboards are utilised during teaching and learning. Some teachers used IWBs only as a presentational technology while others used them to enhance learners’ interaction to achieve pedagogical actions. However, based on the findings of this research there are other elements that are related to achieving interactivity that are informed by Cultural Historical Activity Theory. Therefore, based on the findings, a new conceptualisation of interactivity is proposed and includes seven elements that impact the level of interactivity in learning episodes: teacher, learners, learning goals, tools, rules, roles (Division of Labour) and community. This framework is explained as part of the discussion. This study concludes that Cultural Historical Activity Theory approach is useful in understanding the potential of classroom technology, specifically for interactive whiteboards. Further research is needed to extrapolate this conceptualisation and the intensity of interactivity that does and does not foster learning.

In this text I am going to argue that unless it opens itself to discussions that dominate contemporary social and human sciences, and unless protection of the specificity of historical research is undertaken, there is a real risk that history might be reduced to the status of an auxiliary science of other human and social sciences that have thus far been more successful in interpreting contemporary events and phenomena which have traditionally been consigned to the field of history. I claim that the weak points of contemporary historical studies are methodology and theory separated from empirical research in such a way that they are unable to capture complex phenomena which have emerged with the advent of modernity. In order to link practice and theory, I propose to appropriate for historical research what has been called ”grounded theory”-theory developed out of data, and which uses comparative approaches and case studies as its main methods. The text contains two parts: in part one, I indicate ways in which theories in contemporary human and social science have failed to deal with historical change and in part two, I sketch a methodology of grounded theory.