Sinful Money: Attitudes to Coins in Second Temple Judaism and the Origins of Christianity

This edited volume originated as a symposium entitled “Atonement: Sin, Sacrifice, and Salvation in Jewish and Christian Antiquity” as part of the St. Andrews Symposium for Biblical and Early Christian Studies. The symposium was hosted at the University of St. Andrews in June 2018. The title of the symposium indicates some of the key themes of the book and the main ways that this book defines the complex term atonement. As such, it focuses on conceptions of sin, sacrifice, and salvation to explore the broader notions of atonement in the Hebrew Bible, in early Jewish thought in the Second Temple period, and in its specific development in the NT itself.After a brief introduction, the book is divided into two parts. Part 1 has three chapters that “outline critical issues in the study of atonement and trace the development of atonement legislation in the Hebrew Bible” (p. xvii). Part 2 is more extensive with six chapters that “explore the intersection of anthropology, cosmology, and mediatorial figures in ancient Jewish and Christian atonement theologies” (p. xviii). Part 2 focuses predominantly on developments of atonement theories within Judaism in the Second Temple period and among Christians in the NT.While ch. 1 is located within the section of the book focused on the Hebrew Bible, Christian Eberhart’s scope extends past the Hebrew Bible to the Christ-event (and to early Christian theologians) as he explores sacrificial rituals and theories of atonement. In doing so, Eberhart sets the scene for the entire scope of the book rather than only part 1.Deborah Rooke in ch. 2 and David Wright in ch. 3 focus on atonement in the Pentateuch. Rooke examines how the Priestly source describes situations where an offender is “cut off” from the community (the karet penalty) and the rhetorical function of this penalty. Wright details how the Holiness school in Numbers builds on the Priestly source around regulations regarding the “sin” or “purification” offering (hattaʾt).In ch. 4, Carol Newsom begins part 2 of the book with her essay focused on shifts in Second Temple Judaism regarding views of sin as wrong actions done by a person to an issue of “innate and intractable human moral deficiency”(p. 70) which is characteristic of their personhood. Newsom’s discussion of anthropology and atonement within Second Temple Judaism not only traces its origins and progression but highlights the implications for these anthropological views. In ch. 5, Crispin Fletcher-Louis similarly explores Second Temple Judaism by examining the figure of the High Priest in Ben Sira 50 as an exploration in mediatorial figures and their impact on atonement theologies in the Second Temple period. But whereas Newsom suggests a negative anthropology, Fletcher-Louis points to a positive anthropology represented in the high priest figure, adding to the exploration of this key figure in Second Temple Judaism.N. T. Wright marks a shift in the book from a focus on Second Temple Judaism broadly to a focus on the NT with his examination in ch. 6 of the importance of correctly understanding the overarching narrative of Scripture in order to better understand atonement theologies in the NT. As Wright notes, his chapter extends elements of his previous work on atonement. To this, Wright adds greater emphasis on temple and cosmological considerations.Catrin H. Williams continues with explorations of NT theologies of atonement in ch. 7 as she analyzes the relationship between “seeing” and salvation in the Gospel of John and the use of the Hebrew Bible. Williams points to how “scripture quotations and allusions operate as part of John’s narrative design, particularly with regard to their rhetorical, christological, and—may we add—soteriological functions”(p. 131). Williams argues that John’s use of scriptural citation demonstrates that “the life-giving power of Jesus is seen and believed when he dies and yields the spirit (John 19:30)” and the Gospel also shows that “it is the risen Lord who confers the life-giving Spirit on others by breathing new life (20:22) into those with eyes to see” (154). Thus, John the Evangelist contributes to a vision of atonement by emphasizing the soteriological impacts of Jesus’s death, resurrection, and giving of the Spirit.In ch. 8, T. J. Lang moves the discussion from the Gospel of John in the previous chapter to a focus on Pauline depictions of atonement. Lang argues that Paul’s language in Ephesians points to an “economics of atonement” as Paul uses words associated with economics to conceptualize atonement with the language of sealing and redemption (p. 155). Lang uses a sociolinguistic analysis to identify these usages throughout Ephesians.Martha Himmelfarb provides the concluding chapter of the edited volume with her ch. 9, examining what occurs in the heavenly temple. Himmelfarb’s chapter explores this theme in Jewish writings of the Second Temple period and in NT texts. Himmelfarb compares the lack of cultic sacrifice and atonement language in early apocalypses (e.g., Book of Watchers) alongside depictions of angelic liturgies and compares this to the depictions of cultic sacrifice in other Second Temple and NT writings, notably the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, the Testament of Levi, Hebrews, and Revelation.A strength of this volume is the caliber of the contributors with consistently well-written essays. The majority of the essays are written by senior-level scholars whose work demonstrates the expanse of their knowledge and the depth of their experience. Meanwhile, the essays by more junior scholars are equally solid.Another strength of the volume is the way it not only explores atonement in the Hebrew Bible and NT but bridges the gap of Second Temple Judaism that informs the development of atonement theories across the Scriptures. This integration of Second Temple scholarship with biblical scholarship makes this volume uniquely helpful in its scope.As is common with edited volumes, the book does not provide a single coherent thesis regarding atonement. However, the editors note in their introduction that this was not their intent. Instead, the goal of the volume is to explore the theme of atonement in its multitudinous manifestations––“the marketplace of atonement” as the editors call it (p. xvi)––as it developed in Jewish and Christian communities with a focus on the themes of sin, sacrifice, and salvation. In this regard, the book is successful in its goals. However, the volume could be enhanced by a conclusion that drew together major themes and future trajectories of these essays. This would have added to the continuing relevance of this book and its overall helpfulness to its readers.The book is relatively well edited with a few exceptions. For example, the introduction incorrectly states that part 2 includes “seven essays,” but there are only six essays described in the subsequent paragraphs and present within the volume (p. xviii). This typographic error may indicate a different number of essays in an earlier draft of the manuscript or merely be a counting error.While the essays vary in their complexity, the overall tone of the book is academic, but with the goal of broader engagement. Some of the essays use transliteration and/or translation for much of the Greek and Hebrew, which allows for a wider variety of readers interested in the topic of atonement to find the book accessible. However, more editing toward consistency in this area in all chapters would have added to the volume’s accessibility. This book’s price is not overly exorbitant, but the cost could still be a consideration for some.Overall, the volume is a worthwhile purchase for those interested in a deeper knowledge of the origins and developments in atonement in the Hebrew Bible, Second Temple Judaism, and the New Testament.

Reviewed by: T&T Clark Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism, Volumes I and II ed. by Daniel M. Gurtner and Loren T. Stuckenbruck Bradley C. Gregory daniel m. gurtner and loren t. stuckenbruck (eds.), T&T Clark Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism, Volumes I and II (London: T&T Clark, 2020). Pp. xcii + 1429. $400. This reference work is a major achievement that brings together a remarkable collection of scholars and represents the best of recent scholarship on Second Temple Judaism. There are two lengthy introductory essays and 640 encyclopedic entries. At the end of each of the encyclopedic entries there is a brief bibliography and a list of related entries. Many entries are enhanced by illustrations and photographs. After a series of sixteen periodized color maps of the eastern Mediterranean, Judea, Jerusalem, and Masada, the work is divided into four parts. Volume 1 contains the first three parts, while volume 2 contains part 4. The essay “What Is Second Temple Judaism?” by Loren T. Stuckenbruck (pp. 1–19) constitutes part 1. Stuckenbruck begins by considering the time frame that is in view in references to the Second Temple period. He argues that, although the temple was destroyed in 70 c.e., it is reasonable to include the period up to the mid-second century within the purview of the present work because a wrestling with the significance of the temple at its destruction continued through the Bar Kokhba revolt in 132–135 c.e. He then turns to issues of terminology and nicely demonstrates the inadequacy of terms such as “intertestamental,” “late Judaism,” and “post-biblical.” Next, he considers the features of the Second Temple period and points out how difficult it can be to define what is meant by “Judaism” in the Second Temple period without succumbing to reductionistic or anachronistic descriptions. In fact, Stuckenbruck offers a persuasive approach that “there is little need to opt for the binary or principled alternatives of a ‘mainstream Judaism’ or ‘Judaisms’ in the plural. Rather, the tension between these alternatives may be considered important in itself: a search for shared identity, even if not resolved, is necessary if one is to reconstruct fault lines and how, if at all, different ways of being Jewish could remain in conversation with one another” (p. 5). From there, he identifies three “pillars” that run through the Second Temple period: (1) the effect of ongoing sociopolitical and cultural influences on Judaism, (2) the modes of responding to these changes, along various continuums such as accommodation versus resistance, in ways that shaped a variety of Jewish identities, and (3) the [End Page 527] expansion, shaping, and reception of sacred tradition. Stuckenbruck’s introductory essay concludes by considering some of the main challenges confronting scholars of the Second Temple period. The essay “The Historical and Political Contexts of Second Temple Judaism” by Daniel M. Gurtner (pp. 21–89) constitutes part 2. In this contribution, Gurtner provides a recounting of the events from the Persian conquest of Babylon in 538 b.c.e. to the Bar Kokhba revolt in 132–135 c.e. However, because his chief intention is to provide a narrative framework for the entries in parts 3 and 4, Gurtner’s overview draws mainly on the presentation of the literary sources. He alerts the reader that “relatively little attention is paid to historical problems that emerge from literary and other sources, nor does the question of historical veracity in itself occupy much attention as critical assessments and reconstructions are left to the specialized contributions that are cross-referenced” (p. 21). Because of this, readers should consult the other entries on specific events, as Gurtner recommends. They also may wish to read this essay while referencing more critical histories of the period such as Lester L. Grabbe’s magisterial four-volume work A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period, the first three of which have been published (LSTS; London: T&T Clark, 2004, 2008, 2020). It should be noted that Gurtner spends less than two pages on the Persian period, a far briefer treatment than what is devoted to the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Nevertheless, this is a helpful overview of...

Although various New Testament texts reflect the importance of literacy and illiteracy in early Christianity (for example, Mark 13:14; John 7:15; Acts 4:13; 8:30; 1 Corinthians 16:21), these issues have taken on greater significance in New Testament studies since the 1980s. This period witnessed an explosion of interdisciplinary research on ancient literacy and illiteracy in cognate disciplines such as classics, cultural anthropology, literary criticism, and media criticism. Cumulatively, these interdisciplinary studies have established a new and sustained scholarly majority opinion that most ancient persons were illiterate. As a result, New Testament scholars now see literacy and illiteracy as important factors for interpreting New Testament and early Christian texts in their socio-historical contexts, especially for understanding the diffusion of social power in the text-centered cultures of Second Temple Judaism and early Christianity. Such a perspective has breathed fresh life into old debates, such as the education of Jesus and his followers or the identity of Jewish scribes, and has introduced, or participated in, new perspectives, such as “performance criticism” and the “material turn” in studies of early Christian book culture. Most of these studies accept that the majority of the population in Second Temple Judaism and early Christianity was illiterate and proceed to understand the social consequences of the use of books and literate skills in a predominantly oral environment. Along these lines, further studies have increasingly come to indicate the overall inadequacy of the terms “literate” and “illiterate” for understanding the complex manifestations of literate skills in practice. Complicating factors include the facts that reading and writing skills were acquired and used separately, reading and writing skills existed in varying levels and varying languages even for an individual, and that literacy (the ability to access written tradition for oneself) should not be confused with textuality (the awareness and appreciation of written tradition). These factors and others have impacted New Testament scholars’ understanding of the authorship, reception, and circulation of texts in Second Temple Judaism and early Christianity.

Reviewed by: Genres of Rewriting in Second Temple Judaism: Scribal Composition and Transmission by Molly M. Zahn Jozef Tiňo molly m. zahn, Genres of Rewriting in Second Temple Judaism: Scribal Composition and Transmission (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020). Pp. xi + 264. $100. This thoroughly researched book by Molly M. Zahn follows her numerous other studies on this topic. The goal of Z.'s monograph is nothing less than a presentation of new ways for how to talk and think about rewriting in the context of Judaism of the Second Temple period (p. 5). She rightly states that this need stems from the fact that our understanding of [End Page 315] the nature and purpose of rewriting has been distorted by viewing it as a biblical phenomenon, and that study of the phenomenon has been limited to a few paradigmatic texts that have shaped our concept of a rewritten text in Judaism of the Second Temple period. She thus starts with the suggestion of a different terminology that would be heuristically useful and would avoid anachronistic and canonically inflected labels like Rewritten Bible or Rewritten Scripture. This new terminology then would serve as a basis for further systematic presentation of the phenomenon of rewriting in Second Temple Judaism in a wider perspective. In chap. 1, Z. suggests a division of the broad category of rewriting into two subcategories: revision and reuse. For Z., the term "revision" is reserved for producing a new copy of a given text in which changes are introduced to varying degrees. She states that such changes "could comprise anything from shifts in orthography or morphology to addition or omission of major sections" (p. 38). In "reuse" of textual material, the degree of reproduction varies more widely—reused texts may consist largely of older material, which Z. later refers to as "centripetal reuse"—while others may draw on only specific earlier texts at a few points, which she terms "limited reuse." Revision and reuse represent two different contexts of scribal activity with different outcomes: the former results in a new copy, while the latter yields a new work. In chap. 2, Z. explains at some length modern genre theory in order to show how it may serve to conceptualize her categories of "revision" and "reuse" as analogous to genres. Different genres here correspond to different contexts of scribal activity ("revision" and "reuse" in the case of rewriting), not to different literary genres. She also expresses her preference for viewing rewriting in the context of "discourse tied to founder," which is the concept suggested earlier by Hindy Najman (Seconding Sinai: The Development of Mosaic Discourse in the Second Temple Period [JSJSup 77; Leiden: Brill, 2003]). Somehow generically related to the rewriting, according to Z., is imitatio, that is, when a writer of a new work mimics language of the text being imitated. In this particular context, Z mentions 1QS and Hodayot, both of which contain, in addition to some portions of rewriting examined in chap. 4, imitation of the language of the Torah and Psalms, respectively. In chap. 3, instead of using "Bible" as a category in investigation of the phenomenon of rewriting, Z. applies her categories of "revision" and "reuse" to investigate more fully the extent of rewriting in the Bible itself. In chap. 4, by exploring some nonbiblical compositions, including Qumran sectarian texts (Community Rule, War Scroll, Hodayot), Z. shows that these were subject to the same sorts of revision and reuse as texts now contained in the Bible and that, therefore, rewriting cannot be regarded as primarily a biblical phenomenon. In chap. 5, Z. moves to discuss translation as a form of rewriting. Z. concentrates here on Greek translations, especially in places where translators introduced deliberate content changes, but she also examines later rabbinic targums. She places both in a category of "revision." Then she investigates the Genesis Apocryphon as a special case in which translation is employed in a new composition; therefore, unlike previous translations, 1QapGen falls into the category of "reuse." In chap. 6, Z. turns to further investigation of reuse. After the presentation in the previous chapters of diversity in the scribal approach to "reuse," she thematizes this diversity by showing various...

The Silencing of Slaves in Early Jewish and Christian Texts analyzes a large corpus of early Christian texts and Pseudepigraphic materials to understand how the authors of these texts used, abused and silenced enslaved characters to articulate their own social, political, and theological visions. The focus is on excavating the texts "from below" or "against the grain" in order to notice the slaves, and in so doing, to problematize and (re)imagine the narratives. Noticing the slaves as literary iterations means paying attention to broader theological, ideological, and rhetorical aims of the texts within which enslaved bodies are constructed. The analysis demonstrates that by silencing slaves and using a rhetoric of violence, the authors of these texts contributed to the construction of myths in which slaves functioned as a useful trope to support the combined power of religion and empire. Thus was created not only the perfect template for the rise and development of a Christian discourse of slavery, but also a rationale for subsequent violence exercised against slave bodies within the Christian Empire. The study demonstrates the value of using the tools and applying the insights of subaltern studies to the study of the Pseudepigrapha and in early Christian texts. This volume will be of interest not only to scholars of early Christianity, but also to those working on the history of slavery and subaltern studies in antiquity.

“Second Temple Judaism” is a common designation for the Jewish traditions that flourished between the return of exiles from Babylon and the rebuilding of the Jerusalem Temple under Persian patronage from 538 to 515 bce, and the destruction of the Temple by Roman forces in 70 ce. In practice, research on the period often focuses on the 4th century bce and following, and stretches into the 2nd century ce. Sometimes referred to erroneously as “intertestamental,” Second Temple Judaism has attracted sustained attention since the late 19th century as a transitional age between the ancient Israelite religion reflected in the early strata of the Hebrew Bible and the emergence of Christianity and classical rabbinic Judaism in their characteristically postsacrificial forms in late Antiquity. In relation to the former, it has been called “postexilic,” “post-biblical,” or “late Judaism,” and, in relation to the latter, “prerabbinic” or “early Judaism.” Particularly since the discovery and publication of the Dead Sea Scrolls, it has been studied increasingly for its own sake and on its own terms. By the 1970s, a nascent subfield was taking form, energized by a new emphasis on the diversity of the Judaism from within which Christianity arose. In the late 20th century, studies of the Dead Sea Scrolls revealed new insights into the significance of this period for the development of Judaism as well. Long deemed critical for Jewish engagement with Greek language and literature and for the spread of Jewish communities throughout the Mediterranean world, the Second Temple period has also become a new locus for research on halacha, purity, and biblical interpretation. In addition, its study continues to create a space for discussion and collaboration among specialists in the Hebrew Bible, Classics, New Testament, Jewish studies, and rabbinics. This entry focuses on the literary evidence for Second Temple Judaism, selectively treating themes and issues that cross the large span of periods and places encompassed by this scholarly designation; for material and documentary evidence for Jews in the Second Temple period, the reader is referred to the Oxford Bibliographies articles on specific locales and time periods. Please see also Inscriptions, Papyri, Coins, and Seals in the Oxford Bibliographies article Hellenistic Judaism.

This chapter shifts the analysis from the construction of prophecy and revelation in the Dead Sea Scrolls to the explicit evidence in the Qumran corpus for ongoing prophetic activity in the late Second Temple period. It examines each document independently to determine its contribution to the study of ongoing prophetic activity, and then seeks to locate the larger corpus within the more general understanding of prophecy in the late Second Temple period. Only two sectarian documents, the Hodayot and the Damascus Document, contain allusions to possible prophetic activity employing biblical prophetic language. Three additional non-sectarian documents preserved within the Dead Sea Scrolls further attest to heightened concerns with illegitimate prophets and competing revelatory claims in Second Temple Judaism. Two of these texts (the Temple Scroll, the Moses Apocryphon) contain a detailed set of laws based on Deuteronomic laws relating to prophecy.Keywords: Damascus document; Dead Sea Scrolls; Deuteronomic laws; Hodayot; Moses Apocryphon; prophecy; Qumran corpus; Second Temple Judaism

Reviewed by: An Introduction to Early Judaismby James C. Vanderkam Zev Garber james c. vanderkam, An Introduction to Early Judaism( 2nded.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2022). Pp. xiv + 239. Paper $28.99. Generally speaking, semipopular textbooks that attempt to understand important events and personalities of early Judaism (popularly known as "Second Temple Judaism") highlight major archaeological discoveries, relevant texts, notable movements, influential shapers and shakers, and on. These introductions present a necessary backdrop story of the importance of these named references in the history and culture of Judaism from 587/586 b.c.e. (major phase of the Babylonian exile) to the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–135 c.e.). Maps, outlines, and photography bring to life archaeological, architectural, topographical, historical, biblical, and cultural data referenced and discussed in the text. They illuminate visually and textually significant personalities, geographical locations—historical data that are central in understanding this epoch of Jewish history, beginnings, and destiny. Alas, these expected features are nearly missing in VanderKam's book. His thesis is that the terrain of early Judaism is unexplored territory and therefore heavy tomes of scholarship and debate impede the learning process and progress of the beginning student, nonspecialist instructor, and general reader. His methodology is the use of biblical and extra-biblical texts that are not intended to be data set in situ, he argues, but are instead literary writings that serve ideological positions. His goal is to decode the literary genres in canonical texts and commentary and non-Jewish writings/sources to understand how the scriptural and extrascriptural writers interlaced literature, history, geography, and ideology in their descriptive take on what constitutes the religious and spatial agenda of early Judaism. The volume is divided into four main sections. The first ("The Time of the Second Temple") is parsed into the Persian period (538–332 b.c.e.), the Hellenistic age (323–63 b.c.e.), and the Roman period (63 b.c.e. and beyond). Important events, influential personalities, and decisive history-making decisions are effectively introduced, discussed, and evaluated. The work of Ezra and Nehemiah for Jewish identity and self-government, Ptolemaic and Seleucid control, the Hasmonean state, and individual leaders (Cyrus, Alexander, Judas Maccabeus, Herod, Bar Kokhba) are clearly presented. Nonetheless, cursory descriptions and evaluations can cause unanswered and/or necessary probing queries. For example, whence does the number 70/72 come in relation to the translators of the Septuagint, as recorded in the Letter of Aristeas)? VdK. offers no explanation. Support material in this section is drawn from the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, 1–4 Maccabees, and particularly from the writings of Flavius Josephus. Sections 2 ("Jewish Literature of the Second Temple Period") and 3 ("Great Archaeological Discoveries") embrace additional nonrabbinic literature and archaeology of the Second Temple period since the first edition of this volume (2001). Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha are defined and selected genre and topics are chosen for analysis, discussion, and importance. Categorical divisions embrace Histories (1 Esdras; 1 and 2 Maccabees), Tales (Tobit; Judith; Susanna; 3 Maccabees; Letter of Aristeas; Greek Esther; Joseph and Aseneth), Rewritten Scripture ( 1 Enoch; Aramaic Levi Document; Book of Jubilees; Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs; and Pseudo-Philo's Biblical Antiquities), Apocalypses (Apocalypse of Weeks [ 1 En. 93:1–10; 91:11–17]; Book of Dreams [ 1 Enoch83–90]; Sibylline Oracles; Similitudes or Parables of Enoch [ 1 Enoch37–71]); and Testament of Moses), Wisdom Literature (Wisdom of Ben Sira; the Epistle of Enoch [ 1 Enoch91–107/108]; Baruch; Wisdom of Solomon; and 4 Maccabees), Poetic Works ( Psalms of Solomon; Psalms of [End Page 347]Manasseh; and Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Young Men), Mockery of Idols (Letter of Jeremiah; and Bel and the Dragon); and the importance of Philo of Alexandria and Josephus. Archaeological findings relate to the Elephantine papyri, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and Masada. In sum, literature and archaeological findings are concisely presented with erudition and accessibility. Section 4 ("Synthesis: Leaders, Groups, and Institutions") treats the role and responsibility of religious functionaries (the high priest and the priesthood), civil authority, Sanhedrin, and major sectarian groups (Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and others, most notably, Sicarii/Zealots, whose leadership conquered Masada in...

This chapter surveys Melchizedek traditions in Second Temple Judaism. The interpretations surveyed here neatly divide into two major categories, understanding Melchizedek either as a historical Canaanite king and priest or as a heavenly, angelic figure. Among texts clearly dated to the Second Temple period, the latter view is explicit only in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and even there in a moderate form compared to subsequent speculations. Melchizedek appears in several texts from the Second Temple period - Genesis Apocryphon, Jubilees, Pseudo-Eupolemus, Josephus, Philo, and the Qumran literature. The discussion of the figure in this literature varies widely - most authors of these texts address Melchizedek's encounter with Abram (Abraham), demonstrating a particular desire to smooth out the rough edges of the Genesis 14, but do not concern themselves with Psalms 110:4. Three Qumran texts instead present a heavenly understanding of Melchizedek, presumably deriving this interpretation from the statement 'a priest forever' in Ps 110:4. Keywords:Abraham; angelic figure; Canaanite king; Dead Sea Scrolls; Genesis Apocryphon; Judaism; Melchizedek traditions; priest; Qumran literature; second temple

The Didache represents a community that has long since determined its place within its epic imagination. The community of the Didache found an important source for its epic imagination within the stories, themes, and passages of the Hebrew Scriptures, and in fact has transferred important items within the tradition to its own epic: past temple sacrifices are now communal meals; officiating priests are now prophets, teachers, and apostles; and the temple is now the church. The community also has a complete set of ethical guidelines or laws. In contrast to other early Christian texts, the Didache is remarkably calm in its rhetoric. In fact, its selection of themes or stories from the Hebrew Scriptures neglects violent or destructive episodes which were important to other early Jewish and Christian texts, such as the flood, the conquest, or the destruction of Jerusalem. Keywords: Christian texts; Didache ; epic imagination; Hebrew Scriptures

In this chapter, the author argues that the tripartite Hebrew Bible, while the collections of Torah and Nevi'im were firmly established in the first century BCE and CE, the collection of Ketubim was not yet closed, though its central works had come together. His remarks are relevant only to the Second Temple period; that is, before the destruction of the Temple and the use of the terms canon and is inappropriate in the Second Temple period in apocryphal works. Yet, the collections that eventually constituted the Hebrew Bible were in the process of coming into being and had gained a special status. It is not certain that the attitude to authoritative writings discernable at Qumran was held universally in Second Temple Judaism. But it seems that the Essenes, and perhaps other groups, regarded certain nonbiblical works as authoritative. They also did not think that biblical and inspired were identical. Keywords:Apocrypha; Bible; Dead Sea Scrolls; Hebrew Bible; Qumran; Second Temple Judaism; Torah

This article discusses Jewish history from the rise of Hellenism to 70 CE. The Hellenistic and Roman periods belong to what is often referred to as the ‘Second Temple period’ – a self-contained historical era marked off by the Exile at one end and the fall of Jerusalem in 70 CE at the other. The Jews of the Second Temple period neither inhabited the world of the Israelite and Judean monarchies nor practised the religion of the rabbis. The Second Temple period began with the Persian Empire (c.539–331 BCE), which ended with the conquest of Alexander. It is often assumed that a major break came about in Judaism with the coming of the Greeks, but recent study shows that the situation is more complex than that. First, many of the innovations that characterized Second Temple Judaism had their origins in the Persian period (though often continuing to develop in the Greek and Roman periods). Second, the Greeks added a new element to the culture, but the native cultures continued to flourish.

Reviewed by: Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Pseudepigrapha by Jan A. Sigvartsen Glenn B. Siniscalchi jan a. sigvartsen, Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Pseudepigrapha (Jewish and Christian Texts in Contexts and Related Studies 31; London: T&T Clark, 2019). Pp. xxiv + 331. $39.95. This volume was deliberately written as a companion to Sigvartsen's earlier book, Afterlife and Resurrection Beliefs in the Apocrypha and Apocryphal Literature (see preceding review). Together these books constitute two of the most penetrating studies on the ways in which Jews of the Second Temple era understood the afterlife; they also help to bring the study of Jewish eschatological visions (including the resurrection) to center stage as a major area of biblical scholarship. S.'s books should also be consulted by NT specialists for information about the religious background for the earliest Christians' belief in Jesus's resurrection. The origins of mainstream belief in the resurrection are often traced back to the Second Temple period. During this time, after the Jews came into contact with surrounding religious cultures, they began to synthesize and amalgamate different views of the afterlife as part of their own religious framework. Thus, "multiple afterlife beliefs developed and appeared in their literature, in an attempt to solve the problem of theodicy. By the end of this period, a belief in bodily resurrection had become the mainstream belief in both surviving strands of Second Temple Judaism" (p. 3). In particular, S. exposits the Pseudepigrapha for the purposes of understanding ancient Judaism, resurrection, and the afterlife. These writings include all books of the Second Temple period apart from the Dead Sea Scrolls, Philo, Josephus, the NT, and other rabbinic material. They are characterized as Testaments, expansions on the Tanakh, wisdom and philosophical literature, prayers, psalms, and odes. Apocryphal writings might also be considered pseudepigraphical, but S. covered these writings in his previous volume. In the first few chapters, S. observes that pseudepigraphical writings that either state or imply a belief in the resurrection refer or allude to the Tanakh as the basis of their faith. Jews rephrased, reshaped, and repurposed the Hebrew Bible to clarify and expand their belief in resurrection. This pattern is found repeatedly throughout the pseudepigraphical writings. S. also considers the ways in which Jews conceived of the posthumous body and how their understandings compare with those in the NT. Sigvartsen is highly organized in outlining the relevant passages that speak about the afterlife and eschatological resurrection. For example, "Each literary work containing a 'life-after-death' view seems to present a unique perspective. … This study identified eighteen distinct and complete views" (p. 209). To be sure, the book provides the reader with several tables to organize the various Jewish understandings of the afterlife. The thesis is that "there is no progression from a basic to a more complex death and resurrection view as multiple levels of complexity are attested throughout this period. … [T]here is no linear [End Page 339] development of the resurrection belief; rather, multiple views co-existed, although an eschatological bodily resurrection belief became the central tenet for both Rabbinic Judaism and the Christian Church" (p. 209). This book is extremely helpful in organizing ancient Jewish conceptions of the afterlife (including the resurrection). One is bound to develop a comprehensive grasp of the entire panoply of Jewish viewpoints concerning the afterlife after reading S.'s two books. Glenn B. Siniscalchi Saint Meinrad Seminary and Graduate School of Theology, Rockport, IN 47577 Copyright © 2022 The Catholic Biblical Association of America

The story of Philo Christianus's reception in the Christian tradition continues throughout the Later Roman, Byzantine and Medieval periods. The origins of Christianity can be located nowhere else than in the matrix of Second Temple Judaism, of which also Alexandrian Hellenistic Judaism formed a part. It is natural, therefore, that there are lines of resemblance between Philo's writings and the New Testament, which will later encourage the rapprochement that the Church fathers make between Philo and Christian thought. Philo is not explicitly named in Christian sources until the end of the 2nd century, when he is extensively used by Clement of Alexandria. Detailed studies of the transmission of the Philonic treatises may shed light on the extent to which the Christian reception of Philo has had influence on the constitution of the actual text. In various later Christian sources Philo is simply regarded as a bishop.Keywords: Christian tradition; Church fathers; Clement; New Testament; Philo Christianus; second temple Judaism

Robert Henry Charles has been cited in this chapter as an example a towering figure from an earlier era who found two major traditions in second temple Judaism and attributed them to two related but distinguishable groups. In Beyond the Essene Hypothesis , Boccaccini has made a case that the Qumran community as we know it from its texts was a group that broke away from the Enochians, that is, the Essenes as described by Philo and Josephus. The Qumranians were characterized by a radical dualism and a denial of angelic and human freedom. The works of Ploger, Hanson, and Boccaccini are a few of the attempts to sketch the lines of Jewish thought in various parts of the second temple period, but they are useful examples, each in its own way, of the kinds of results to which scholars have come. Keywords: Enochians; Essene Hypothesis; Jewish thought; Josephus; Philo; Qumran community; second temple Judaism