Silene genus: a review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology

The phytoecdysteroid profiles of extracts of aerial parts of flowering plants of 7 ecdysteroid-containing species in the genus Silene (Caryophyllaceae; S. fridvaldszkyana Hampe, S. gigantea L., S. graminifolia Otth, S. mellifera Boiss. & Reuter, S. repens Patr., S. schmuckeri Wettst., and S. sendtneri Boiss.) have been examined and identified by HPLC and, in the case of two new compounds, by mass spectrometry and NMR. S. frivaldszkyana was found to contain predominantly 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E), with smaller amounts of 2-deoxyecdysone (2dE), 2-deoxy-20-hydroxyecdysone (2d20E), polypodine B (polB), integristerone A (IntA), 26-hydroxypolypodine B (26polB), and 20,26-dihydroxyecdysone (20,26E). Additionally, a new minor ecdysteroid, 26-hydroxyintegristerone A, has been identified from this species. S. gigantea contains 3 major ecdysteroids (2dE, 2d20E, and 20E) and much smaller amounts of intA and 2-deoxy-20-hydroxyecdysone 25-beta-D-glucoside, which is a new ecdysteroid. Ecdysteroids in the other 5 species have been identified by co-chromatography with reference compounds on RP- and NP-HPLC systems. There is considerable variability with regard to ecdysteroid profiles within the genus Silene. The chemotaxonomic value of ecdysteroid profiles within the genus Silene is discussed.

The genus Silene (family Caryophyllaceae) comprises more than 700 species, which are widely distributed in temperate zones of the Northern Hemisphere, but are also present in Africa and have been introduced in other continents. Silene produces a high diversity of secondary metabolites and many of them show interesting biological and pharmacological activities. More than 450 compounds have been isolated; important classes include phytoecdysteroids (which mimic insect molting hormones), triterpene saponins (with detergent properties), volatiles, other terpenoids and phenolics. This review focusses on the phytochemical diversity, distribution of Silene secondary metabolites and their biological activities.

The plant mt genomes are highly dynamic. Their evolution is driven by frequent rearrangements and gene transfers, whereas substitution rate is generally slow with several exceptions. The genus Silene (Caryophyllales) represents one of them and exhibits high mutation rate in mt DNA. The gynodioecious species (producing female and hermaphroditic individuals) of this genus show also a high polymorphism in mt DNA due to the balancing selection in favor of various mt genomes in the same population. Thus, Silene species possess plenty of mt markers, which facilitate the study of the impact of mt genome rearrangements on mt gene expression and function. They are also good models for the investigation of functional and evolutionary aspects of heteroplasmy, the situation when two or more organelles with distinct genomes co-occur in the same individual.

BackgroundPlastid genomes (plastomes) in land plants typically retain a conserved quadripartite structure; yet some angiosperm lineages exhibit extensive structural instability and accelerated sequence evolution. Here, we present a comparative plastome analysis of six species from the subgenus Lychnis (genus Silene, Caryophyllaceae) integrated with previously published plastomes. ResultsWe identify eight large-scale inversions, three independent shifts of the inverted-repeat (IR) boundary, and a marked proliferation of dispersed repeats, implicating repeat-mediated recombination and altered recombination control in driving plastome reorganization. Gene content varied among Lychnis species, including the loss or pseudogenization of accD, infA, and rpl23. Transcriptome data reveal nuclear-encoded homologues with chloroplast-targeting signals, indicating functional replacement via plastid-to-nucleus gene transfer and recruitment of pre-existing nuclear paralogues. Plastid phylogenomic analyses recover the subgenus Lychnis as a strongly supported, monophyletic and early-diverging lineage within the genus Silene, showing that structural changes and substitution rate acceleration have arisen independently of those in other subgenera. Across the genus, synonymous and nonsynonymous substitution rates are elevated in a subset of non-photosynthetic genes, including accD and clpP, with lineage-specific episodes of positive selection detected on several branches.ConclusionsTogether, these results point to a complex interplay between recombination dynamics, shifts in selective regime and plastid–nuclear interactions, and underscore plastome instability as an important driver of genome evolution within Silene and more broadly across angiosperms.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12870-026-08106-8.

The genus Silene, with more than 100 species in Iran is an important genus of Iranian flora. According to available data on the northwestern parts of Iran, including three provinces of Ardabil, East and West Azarbaijan are considered as a major diversity center of perennial species of the genus Silene in Iran. In the course of a revision of Silene in this area, some interesting specimens were collected which are new records from Iran. In this paper, occurrence of Silene dianthoides (sect. Caespitosae), and S. chustupica (sect. Auriculatae) are reported. The name S. dianthoides is used for previous records of S. marcowiczii which is more likely conspecific. Both species are growing in alpine zone. The previously evaluated threatened status of S. chustupica as critically endangered according to IUCN red list categories is discussed here. The taxonomical descriptions, geographical distribution and the ecology of the new records are provided and their photographs are also presented.

The genus Silene contains both hermaphrodite, gynodioecious and dioecious species, dioecy being represented in three sections of the genus. To locate the events of change of reproductive systems, we compared ITS sequences of 22 species of Silene chosen throughout the whole genus, and four putative outgroup species. Gynodioecy, which is the most common reproductive system within the genus Silene and in closely related genera such as Saponaria and Dianthus, is proposed to be ancestral in the genus. Dioecy has evolved at least twice: once in the section containing S. latifolia, and once in the clade containing S. otites and S. acaulis ssp. bryoides. Evolution towards hermaphroditism, associated with evolution of selfing has also occurred at least twice, in S. gallica and S. comica.

Sexual dimorphism is widespread among species with separate sexes, and its extent is thought to be governed by the differential expression of thousands of genes between males and females known as sex-biased genes (SBGs). SBGs have been studied in numerous species, but rarely through comparative approaches, which limits our understanding of their evolution, especially during multiple, independent transitions to separate sexes. We sequenced the transcriptomes of nine dioecious species (with separate males and females), two gynodioecious species (with separate females and hermaphrodites), and two hermaphrodite species from the Silene genus. Our dataset encompasses three independent transitions to dioecy, ranging from less than 1 million years ago (Mya) to about 11 Mya. We found that the number of both female- and male-biased genes positively correlates with the age of separate sexes, with species with older sex separation exhibiting the most numerous sex-biased genes. More specifically, male-biased expression tends to emerge early, as soon as females coexist with hermaphrodites (gynodioecy). Numbers of female-biased genes are rare at first, and their numbers only increase after a transition to separate males and females (dioecy). Additionally, we found that both positive selection and genetic drift contribute to the evolution of SBGs. Overall, this study provides new insights into the mechanisms underlying sex-biased gene evolution during transitions to separate sexes.

Genus Silene (Caryophyllaceae) is very rich in secondary metabolites and has an antiviral, antimalarial, antitumor, antibacterial and antioxidant properties, but Balkan endemic Silene sendtneri (Sendtner's campion) is not analyzed from the aspect of phenolic composition and their biological activities. Evaluation of total phenolic contents (TPC) and total flavonoid contents (TFC), and antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of hydromethanolic extracts from inflorescences, stem, rhizome, and seeds of S. sendtneri, was done in this study for the first time. The TPC, TFC, and antioxidant activity (DPPH; 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) were determined by UV/VIS spectrophotometry. Antimicrobial activity was estimated against selected test microorganisms (Staphylococcus epidermididis, Staphylococcus aureus subsp. aureus, Salmonella abony, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans) using a disc diffusion assay. The inflorescences had the highest (11.587 mg GAEg-1 DW) and rhizome the lowest TPC (2.017 mg GAEg-1 DW). The inflorescences extract exhibited the highest TFC (69.824 mg CEg-1 DW), while TFC was not detected in the rhizome extract. The stem’s extract had the highest antioxidant activity (IC50; 20.51%), while the rhizome had the lowest (61.89%). All extracts showed moderate antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus epidermididis and low activity against the three remaining tested organisms. Antifungal activity of inflorescence and rhizome extracts was moderate. Obtained results provide a basis for further investigations of various S. sendtneri extracts, which can be a potential natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agents

Recent studies of plant sex chromosome-linked genes have revealed many interesting characteristics, although there are limited reports about heteromorphic sex chromosomes in flowering plants. Sex chromosome-linked genes in angiosperms have been characterized mainly in the dioecious plant Silene latifolia. Although all such genes were isolated from transcripts of male flower buds of S. latifolia, most seem to be housekeeping genes except for the petal- and stamen-specific MADS box gene on the Y chromosome (SlAP3Y) and the male reproductive organ-specific gene on the X chromosome (MROS3X). Recent evolutionary studies have revealed at least three evolutionary strata on the X chromosome that are related to stepwise loss of recombination between the sex chromosomes. Moreover, genetic maps showed conservation of gene organization on the X chromosome in the genus Silene and substantial pericentric inversion between the X and Y chromosomes of S. latifolia during evolution. A comparison between paralogs on the sex chromosomes revealed that introns of the Y-linked genes are longer than those of X-linked paralogs. Although analyses of sex chromosome-linked genes suggest that degeneration of the Y chromosome has occurred, the Y chromosome in flowering plants remains the largest in the male genome, unlike that of mammals. Accumulation of repetitive sequences and the entire chloroplast genome on the Y chromosome appear to have contributed to this large size. However, more detailed studies will be required to help explain the basis for the fact that heteromorphic sex chromosomes in angiosperms are large.

Colobanthus apetalus is a member of the genus Colobanthus, one of the 86 genera of the large family Caryophyllaceae which groups annual and perennial herbs (rarely shrubs) that are widely distributed around the globe, mainly in the Holarctic. The genus Colobanthus consists of 25 species, including Colobanthus quitensis, an extremophile plant native to the maritime Antarctic. Complete chloroplast (cp) genomes are useful for phylogenetic studies and species identification. In this study, next-generation sequencing (NGS) was used to identify the cp genome of C. apetalus. The complete cp genome of C. apetalus has the length of 151,228 bp, 36.65% GC content, and a quadripartite structure with a large single copy (LSC) of 83,380 bp and a small single copy (SSC) of 17,206 bp separated by inverted repeats (IRs) of 25,321 bp. The cp genome contains 131 genes, including 112 unique genes and 19 genes which are duplicated in the IRs. The group of 112 unique genes features 73 protein-coding genes, 30 tRNA genes, four rRNA genes and five conserved chloroplast open reading frames (ORFs). A total of 12 forward repeats, 10 palindromic repeats, five reverse repeats and three complementary repeats were detected. In addition, a simple sequence repeat (SSR) analysis revealed 41 (mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta- and hexanucleotide) SSRs, most of which were AT-rich. A detailed comparison of C. apetalus and C. quitensis cp genomes revealed identical gene content and order. A phylogenetic tree was built based on the sequences of 76 protein-coding genes that are shared by the eleven sequenced representatives of Caryophyllaceae and C. apetalus, and it revealed that C. apetalus and C. quitensis form a clade that is closely related to Silene species and Agrostemma githago. Moreover, the genus Silene appeared as a polymorphic taxon. The results of this study expand our knowledge about the evolution and molecular biology of Caryophyllaceae.

Haldane's rule is an empirical phenomenon that has been observed in animals with sex chromosomes. The rule states that the heterogametic sex (XY or ZW) will be “absent, rare, or sterile” following hybridization between two species. Despite the near ubiquity of Haldane's rule in animal hybridizations, it has not been documented in organisms other than animals. Here, we show evidence for both rarity and sterility in hybrid male but not female offspring in crosses between three dioecious plant species from the genus Silene with heteromorphic (XY) sex chromosomes. Our results are consistent with Haldane's rule, extending its applicability to plants with sex chromosomes.

The investigation into angiosperm flora has identified 5 flowering plants as a new record to Manipur state, northeast India: Amorphophallus napalensis (Wall.) Bogner & Mayo and Arisaema nephanthoides (Wall.) Mart. (Araceae), Impateins pulchra Hook. f. & Thomson (Balsaminaceae), Lonicera acuminata Wall. (Caprifoliaceae) and Silene baccifera (L.) Durande (Caryophyllaceae). Notably, the genus Silene is a new addition to the state’s flora. Detailed morphological descriptions and colour photo plates are provided for easy identification.

The genus Silene is an important model system for fields as diverse as sex chromosome evolution, speciation and disease ecology. However, genomic resources remain scarce in the genus. Here, we present a near chromosome-scale genome assembly and high-density linkage map for S. uniflora, a hermaphroditic/gynodioecious species which is an important model for rapid adaptation to anthropogenic disturbance and the role of phenotypic plasticity in adaptive evolution. Using a combination of long-read and Hi-C sequencing technologies, we generated a 1,268 Mb genome assembly with a scaffold N50 of 40.72 Mb and 682 Mb assembled into 12 chromosomes. We annotated the genome using evidence from transcriptome and protein mapping in combination with ab initio gene prediction, resulting in 41,603 protein-coding genes and a BUSCO completeness score of 91%. We also present a linkage map which we used to validate the genome assembly and estimate local recombination rate across the genome. Comparison to the only two other Silene species with chromosome-scale genome assemblies reveals widespread genome rearrangements in the genus, suggesting Silene may be a promising study system for the role of genome rearrangement in evolution, particularly in the evolution of sex chromosomes and adaptation.

The genus Silene (family of Caryophyllaceae) is known to contain triterpenoid saponins [1] and phytoecdysteroids [2]. Silene colorata is distributed over the Mediterranean basin, but little is known concerning the phytochemistry of the species. The aim of this work was the development of an analytical method for the rapid characterization of saponins and phytoecdysteroids in a commercially available S. colorata hydroglycerinic extract. After sample preparation on Solid Phase Extraction cartridges, the extract was analyzed by HPLC-HR-MS/MS on an LTQ-Orbitrap platform. The chromatographic and spectrometric conditions applied for the analysis were optimized for the two compound classes. The analysis revealed the presence of three major groups of phytochemicals in the extract, namely di- and tri-glycosylated flavonoids, phytoecdysteroids, and saponins. Among phytoecdysteroids, 20-hydroxyecdysone and a sileneoside derivative (Figure) were the major constituents, while five more major compounds that belong to this category were identified. Saponins detected were molecules of high molecular weights (> 950 and up to 1630) and MS/MS experiments revealed the presence of three to six sugar units on the molecules. In some cases, the glycosidic moiety was esterified with a cinnamic acid derivative, e.g. saponin in the Figure. These structural features of the saponin corresponded with those for saponins in other Silene species [3]. The aglycons of the saponins were characterized with the aid of MS3 experiments. In all cases the triterpenic aglycon gave a pseudomolecular ion of m/z 485.3405, corresponding to a molecular formula of C30H47O5, with 7.5 RDBeq. The molecular formula corresponded to that of quillaic or gypsogenic acids, that have been both reported as characteristic triterpenoidal aglycones in other species [1].

Background: Seed germination strategies depend on a number of factors such as climatic variables, habitat, life cycle, phylogenetic affiliation and morphological seed traits.Aims: We present a novel evaluation of the ecological correlates of germination strategies focussing on plant populations drawn from a single genus and considering a number of relevant explanatory variables.Methods: Temperature and light-controlled germination experiments were carried out on 21 seed accessions belonging to 13 closely related species of the genus Silene L. Accessions were selected to tightly control the phylogenetic effect and give broad ecological and geographic coverage of the genus in Europe, with three North American and Macaronesian outgroups from climatically extreme environments. We used principal component analysis and correlation analyses to identify the correlation structure of germination traits and include multiple explanatory variables.Results: Three germination strategies were shown to be related to climatic control. (1) Seeds from arid regions with hot, dry summers germinated optimally at cool temperatures associated with the rainfall period under field conditions, whereas (2) the benefit of cold stratification was more marked in provenances characterised by cold, dry winters, and (3) seeds from mild climates preferred warm temperatures for germination. Moreover, (4) biennial populations of disturbed habitats showed synchronised and rapid seed germination over a wide thermal window. In agreement with previous findings, (5) habitat-related syndromes were observed only for wetland populations. Correlations with seed mass were significant when related to summer precipitation, but weak or absent in relation to germination traits, indicating that, though influenced by the local climate, seed mass is a poor predictor of germination strategies.Conclusions: These results suggest that whilst habitat and life cycle might shape germination patterns to a certain extent, long-term climatic differences play a substantial role in selecting specific germination traits and strategies.