Setting them up for (grammatical) success: on the impact of metalinguistic explanations on young learners’ metalinguistic awareness and language learning aptitude

In this pilot study we investigated whether metalinguistic explanations (ME) could help young learners (YL) boost their metalinguistic awareness (MA) and, in turn, improve their accuracy at the time of using two grammatical features. Although previous research has established a positive correlation between MA, metalinguistic knowledge (MK) and better learning outcomes in a foreign language (FL), few interventional studies have been conducted in this regard. Using a pretest/post-test design, an intact classroom (N = 20) of L1 Spanish 10-year-old students of English as a FL (EFL) was divided into an experimental and a control group. First, both groups completed an individual pen-and-paper MA test. Then, they were paired up according to their proficiency level and asked to carry out a dictogloss task, in which they had to negotiate their final written output. Before the post-test phase, the experimental group was asked to engage with a learning sequence of ME concerning two problematic English grammatical features: third person –s and his/her. These explanations also included the definitions of metalinguistic terminology. Additionally, an individual three-step verbal protocol was carried out after the post-tests to triangulate collaborative data. The results showed a moderate effect of the treatment in MA scores. Likewise, ME had a large effect on the use of third person –s during the interaction, as well as a moderate effect on the accurate use of his/her. Also, the treatment group dyads produced significantly more episodes of noticing during the post-test task and at a higher resolution rate than during the pretest stage. These findings support the use of explicit learning devices such as ME with YL of EFL, as they seem to promote MA and increase their accuracy even in input-limited learning conditions.

Section 1: Introduction. Chapter 1. An Overview of English Language Proficiency Assessments for Young Learners by Mikyung Kim Wolf & Yuko Goto Butler. Section 2: Theoretical Basis and Assessment Frameworks. Chapter 2. Theoretical and Developmental Issues to Consider in the Assessment of Young Learners' English Language Proficiency by Alison Bailey. Chapter 3. Designing TOEFL (R) Primary TM Tests by Yeonsuk Cho, Mitch Ginsburgh, Rick Morgan, Brad Moulder, Xiaoming Xi, & Maurice Cogan Hauck. Chapter 4 TOEFL Junior (R) Design Framework by Youngsoon So, Mikyung Kim Wolf, Maurice Cogan Hauck, Pamela Mollaun, Paul Rybinski, Daniel Tumposky, & Lin Wang. Chapter 5. Designing Task Types for English Language Proficiency Assessments for K-12 English Learners in the U.S. by Maurice Cogan Hauck, Emilie Pooler, Mikyung Kim Wolf, Alexis Lopez & David Anderson. Section 3: Empirical Studies for Validity Evidence. Chapter 6. A Field Test Study for the TOEFL (R) Primary TM Reading and Listening Tests by Jiyun Zu, Bradley Moulder, & Rick Morgan. Chapter 7. Strategies Used by Young English Learners in an Assessment Context by Lin Gu & Youngsoon So. Chapter 8. Using the Common European Framework of Reference to Facilitate Score Interpretations for Young Learners' English Language Proficiency Assessments by Spiros Papageorgiou & Patricia Baron. Chapter 9. Making a Validity Argument for Using the TOEFL Junior Standard Test as a Measure of Progress for Young English Language Learners by Lin Gu, J. R. Lockwood, & Donald E. Powers. Chapter 10. Comparing the Performance of Young English Language Learners and Native English Speakers on Speaking Assessment Tasks by Mikyung Kim Wolf, Alexis Lopez, Saerhim Oh, & Fred S. Tsutagawa. Section 4: Future Assessments and Innovations for Young Learners. Chapter 11. Considering Young Learners' Characteristics in Developing a Diagnostic Assessment by Eunice Eunhee Jang, Megan Vincett, Edith van der Boom, Clarissa Lau, & Yehbeen Yang. Chapter 12. Computerized Dynamic Assessments for Young Language Learners by Matthew E. Poehner, Jie Zhang, & Xiaofei Lu. Chapter 13. Measuring 21st Century Reading Comprehension Through Scenario-Based Assessments by Jane Shore, Mikyung Kim Wolf, Tenaha O'Reilly, & John P. Sabatini. Section 5: Conclusion. Chapter 14. Challenges and Future Directions for Young Learners' English Language Assessments and Validity Research by Yuko Goto Butler. Appendices.

ABSTRACTExamining spoken features across proficiency levels allows researchers to explore the nature of speaking proficiency as it develops. This line of research has thus far primarily focused on adult second language (L2) learners. Using cross-sectional data based on a large-scale language assessment intended for young L2 learners, in this study, we examined the distinguishing features that categorize the spoken performance of young English language learners (ages 9 to 12) across levels, and especially, between adjacent levels. The study constitutes an initial step in exploring the construct of speaking proficiency of young English language learners as it progresses. The results indicated that 16 spoken features, found to differentiate adult English learners, were associated with young learners’ English proficiency. We also found that spoken performance of young L2 English learners was characterized by different features at different levels. Findings of the study provide some preliminary observations regarding linguistic features that show differentiating power at different proficiency levels, offering insights into young learners’ English development. The findings can serve as preliminary suggestions for utilizing different rating criteria for constructing rubrics for assessing young learners at different levels of English proficiency.

IntroductionThis paper reports selective findings from original research into the effects of early multilingual partial immersion education on children's metalinguistic awareness and performance in English.Procedure and methodThe study we present was carried out in two elementary schools in North Tyrol, Austria. Two groups of children participated in the research. Group 1 is enrolled in a multilingual instructional programme. Group 2 is in mainstream education. For Group 1 (the experimental group) English is the third language, for Group 2 (the control group) it is the second language. The study carried out by the third author explores how pupils in multilingual partial immersion programmes compare to their incipient bilingual counterparts in the control group on an English proficiency and a metalinguistic test. As part of a mixed methods approach a vocabulary knowledge test, a picture description test, and a language awareness test were administered.ResultsThe results of the study show a clear advantage for the pupils in the multilingual programme compared to those in mainstream schooling. The results are in line with previous research which found that early and extensive contact with an L2 benefits the acquisition of English as a third language and has positive effects on young learners' metalinguistic awareness.DiscussionTo contextualise our discussion and anchor the present research in terms of its theoretical grounding we first consider definitions of metalinguistic awareness (MeLA). We explain what MeLA is and what it entails, and we discuss different manifestations of MeLA and the role it plays in language(s) learning and multilingual development. The aim is to propose a situated meta-cognitive description for the development of metalinguistic awareness (MeLA.) in children with extensive language experience and to pin down possible implications of multilingual learning for MeLA and multilingual development more generally. Particular attention is given to how primary schoolers use their linguistic and metacognitive resources, and how these resources and the ability to leverage them change as a function of multilingual learning in formal instructional contexts. The findings are considered against established (and our own recent) research.

Research into young learners' metalinguistic awareness has led to both definitions of the construct and key findings about its role in children's cognitive and linguistic development. I briefly summarise this research before introducing two established theoretical models that can help us understand the concept of metalinguistic awareness more broadly: Ellen Bialystok's classic dichotomy of analysis of knowledge and control of processing, and Rod Ellis's notion of explicit (second language) knowledge. This is followed by an overview of measures of metalinguistic awareness that have been used in empirical studies to date as well as an illustration and critique of selected measures. As a result, I propose a model that combines features of the two previous frameworks by conceptualising knowledge representations and processes in terms of (1) how implicit/explicit and (2) how specific/schematic they are. I explain this model to illustrate how it can serve as a useful thinking tool. In particular, I argue that the model not only allows us to theorise measures of metalinguistic awareness more clearly and easily, but that it can also capture tasks aimed at assessing other linguistic and cognitive abilities. The article concludes with a brief outlook on future research into metalinguistic awareness.

Metalinguistic Awareness and Second Language Acquisition is the first book to present an in-depth overview of metalinguistic awareness as it relates to SLA. In this volume, Roehr-Brackin discusses metalinguistic awareness in the context of both child and adult language learning, and outlines the various methods that can be used to measure metalinguistic awareness. The author presents different approaches to metalinguistic awareness, including a cognitive-developmental perspective that explains how the concept relates to literacy, and an applied linguistics perspective that understands metalinguistic awareness as explicit or conscious knowledge about language. Roehr-Brackin explores the role of metalinguistic awareness in language education aimed at young learners, as well as in instructed adult SLA. This book is an excellent resource for those researching or taking courses in second language acquisition, bi- and multilingualism, and language teaching.

Studies of language aptitude in young learners are scarce. However, it may be claimed that in the current revitalization of language aptitude age-related concerns have played a significant role. It has been argued that language aptitude, in particular analytical abilities, is associated to high attainment in late learners, thereby providing an explanation for those cases of successful late learners that challenge the critical period hypothesis (DeKeyser 2000). However, recent research has found that language aptitude also seems to have an explanatory role for young starters (Abrahamsson and Hyltenstam 2008; Granena 2012). In that respect, Munoz and Singleton (2011) have suggested that a research question needing further elucidation is whether a high level of language learning aptitude is a prerequisite for high levels of proficiency in late learners only. Accordingly, this chapter presents a study that examines whether language learning aptitude, as measured by the Elementary Modern Language Aptitude Test, is significantly associated with proficiency in a group of Spanish-Catalan bilingual learners of English. Participants are 48 primary school children in fifth and sixth grades (ages 10–11 and 11–12). Specifically, the study compares the strength of the association between aptitude scores with speaking skills and with listening, reading and writing skills, as well as the relationship between the different aptitude components and those skills. The results show significant correlations with all language dimensions, although the predictive value of the aptitude test seems weaker for speaking. The results also highlight the role played by grammatical sensitivity in relation to writing outcomes.

This longitudinal study analyzed university students’ cognition in learning an English for young learners (EYL) course. A qualitative method was used to get the data from 28 students who took the tiered EYL courses, EYL 1, EYL 2, and EYL 3, at a private university by giving them open-ended questionnaires for three semesters, or one and a half years. Semi-structured interviews with those 28 students were also used as the triangulation data at the end of each semester. The findings indicate a very extreme change in pre-service teachers’ cognition, such as motivation, perception, and belief. At the end of their lecture, students initially interested in learning English for young learners did not want to become EYL teachers. On the other hand, students who enrolled in the EYL course for non-academic reasons wanted to have a profession as an EYL teacher after completing the EYL courses. It proves that students’ interest in teaching English to young learners and the length of time spent studying EYL teaching knowledge do not assure those pre-service teachers are increasingly convinced to have a teaching profession.

In many countries in Western Europe and East Asia, pre-service English language teacher education lacks specialized training programs in English for young learners. Turkey had its share in this trend with consecutive attempts to lower the age of English as a foreign language (EFL) introduction in about a decade apart without necessary preparation including teacher qualifications to effectively serve EFL learning young learners in Turkey. In this rather complicated picture, the voices of pre-service English language teachers are unheard and the present chapter provides the pre-service English teachers to young learners' perspectives. The present chapter aims to fill in this gap in the current literature by initiating pre-service English language teacher training in English for young learners (EYL), a shortfall in emerging nations' EFL education systems via early English classroom observations (field experience) and reflection. Data comprise pre-service English language teacher trainees' reflections on early English classroom observations and the qualitative data analyses reveal emerging themes of pre-service reflections shedding light onto English for young learners-related theory, practice, and policy.

EYL (English for Young Learners) is a global phenomenon, and yet research is laden with reports suggesting teachers’ difficulty in developing appropriate EYL pedagogy (e.g. Butler, 2015; Copland, Garton & Burns 2014; Emery, 2012; Garton, Copland & Burns, 2011; Le & Do, 2012; Zein, 2015, 2016a, 2016b). This chapter reports on a study that investigated the perspectives of twenty-six (26) teachers on the appropriate pedagogy needed to teach in the EYL classroom. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews. The findings demonstrate that in the EYL classroom larger emphasis needs to be given to the young learners rather than the language . The findings show that developing a child-friendly pedagogy in the EYL classroom is of vital importance; it is at the core of EYL pedagogy. This brings implications for TESOL teacher education at pre-service and in-service levels in the sense that TESOL teacher educators need to design courses aimed to foster child-friendly pedagogy. The chapter specifically argues for TESOL teacher education to make stronger emphasis on child individual differences (IDs). This is necessary in order to equip teachers with appropriate working knowledge in second language acquisition (SLA) that is prerequisite to the development of EYL teaching expertise.

This chapter focuses on a small-scale, exploratory study that examined strategies used by young learners of different proficiency levels when taking the TOEFL Primary listening and reading comprehension items. It presents the study in the context of the prototyping study of the TOEFL Primary tests. The chapter reviews selected studies whose results have direct implications on assessment development and validation. Little empirical research is available to examine the strategies young English language learners use in an assessment context. As a result, knowledge of the response processes engaged in by young learners is limited. The chapter argues that almost half of the learners had experiences in taking various standardized English language tests designed for young English learners. It suggests that further empirical research will be conducted, investigating the generalizability of the current findings on young English language learners' use of strategies in assessment contexts.

This article compares and discusses the current state of teaching English to young learners (EYL) in ASEAN country members. It pictures the policy and practice of EYL in which English is adopted as either a first, second, or foreign language. The discussion on each country begins with a brief historical and political review that helped shape the country’s policy on foreign language education. It then moves to the status of English in the polity then to EYL policy and practice of each country and follows next the challenges each country experiences regarding EYL. The final part of the article discusses the implication related to what needs to be done to address these challenges. Keywords: EYL policy and practice, English in ASEAN

ABSTRACTThe present study looks into the effects of early multilingual education by investigating linguistic knowledge and metalinguistic awareness in young learners at the primary level. The study aims to establish whether children in multilingual education programmes perform higher on a measure of metalinguistic awareness and with regards to their L1 Italian, L2 German and L3 English than children who receive traditional second and foreign language instruction. Two groups of elementary school pupils recruited from 2 Italian institutions in South Tyrol (Italy), each with multilingual and traditional instructional streams, participated in the study. All the participants completed a metalinguistic awareness test (in their L1 Italian), a German and an English test. The results of the study show the significant positive effects of early multilingual learning and a clear overall superiority for the subjects in the multilingual programmes as compared to those in the regular programmes. The results provide support not only for the effectiveness of multilingual education but also for cognitive advantages in multilingual children.

This paper reports on a case study in which drama activities were used to enhance student interaction and factors that affect learners’ turn taking ratio during the interaction among a group of three young learners. The experiment was conducted over 8 lessons a one-month period at a private English language academy during which the participants took part in. Two regular lessons and six lessons using drama-based activities were conducted. The lessons were videotaped and all the classroom interaction was transcribed and analysed using van Lier’s ‘Turn-taking’ and four ‘Turn Initiative Types’. It was to measure whether the students took more of turn taking in the interaction during the lessons that implied drama based activities than the regular ones. In addition, through the analysis of the video, the researcher tried to explore factors that affect the student’s turn taking frequency and types of turn takings. The results revealed a increase in the number of instances of turn taking ratio in the drama based classes in comparison to that of the regular lessons. For the more, the students made the biggest increase in the Topic Management(TM) amongst other four types of turn initiatives. Also it indicated the role of personality, linguistic level, and familiarity of learning and teaching norm in the lesson as the affective factors. Therefore, the study concluded with an effective role of drama activities for enhancing the students’ participation during the classroom interaction. It also suggests to have further study about reflecting personality and linguistic levels in implying drama based activities in young English learners’ interaction enhancement.

This article presents the process of constructing and validating a test of metalinguistic awareness (MLA) for young school children (age 8–10). The test was developed between 2021 and 2023 as part of the MetaLearn research project, financed by The Research Council of Norway. The research team defines MLA as using metalinguistic knowledge at a point in real time. To develop the test, the research team relied heavily on general measurement theory (psychometrics) and insights from the field of language testing and assessment. This aids in the process of developing a practical and user-friendly MLA-test which yields valid scores and reliably measures the state and the development of MLA. This innovative approach to MLA testing offers explicitness about the theoretical construct of the test and at the same time contributes to controlling the difficulty and discriminatory power of each test item. We argue that the test development process presented here is useful when developing tests of MLA and similar concepts, as it facilitates comparison of results as well as replicability. This development process and its detailed description also make it possible to adapt the MetaLearn MLA-test to other contexts.