Servant Leadership: An Ideal Global Leadership Style for Team Learning in Multicultural Organizations

The Impact of Middle and Senior Leadership Styles on Employee Performance -- Evidence From Chinese Enterprises

SITUATIONAL AND INTERACTIONIST LEADERSHIP THEORIES

Purpose This study examines how servant leadership (SL) fosters employee learning (EL) in public sector organizations through the mediating role of happiness at work (HAW: job engagement, job satisfaction and job affective commitment) and the moderating role of psychological capital (PC). Drawing on self-determination theory, we test how SL builds positive work attitudes that translate into higher individual learning and whether this pathway is stronger for employees with greater PC. Design/methodology/approach Survey data were collected from 269 managerial-level employees in a large Indian public-sector mining and energy organization. Validated scales captured SL, HAW components, EL and PC. Reliability and validity were established via exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis; common method bias and multicollinearity checks were satisfactory. Hypotheses were tested using Hayes PROCESS Model 5, controlling for demographic covariates. Findings SL has a positive effect on HAW (engagement, satisfaction and affective commitment) and EL. EL was enhanced by engagement and affective commitment, while the satisfaction–learning link was non-significant. SL exerted significant indirect effect on EL via engagement and affective commitment, indicating partial and complementary mediation alongside a positive direct effect between SL and EL. PC strengthened the SL-EL relationship; conditional effects were significant at low, average and high PC, strongest at high PC. Research limitations/implications This study does not account for high conflation among various leadership styles. Moreover, cross-sectional, single-organization, self-report data limit causal inference and generalizability. Future studies should employ longitudinal/multi-source designs, compare sectors and probe other well-being-oriented leadership styles. Practical implications Organizations–especially public-sector learning contexts–can enhance individual learning by cultivating servant leadership behaviours that elevate engagement and affective commitment, and investing in development of PC. Originality/value This study contributes to the literature on organizational learning by providing a basis for understanding the mediating mechanism through which servant leadership influences HAW and, ultimately, employee via the synergistic interaction with employee PC. The findings emphasize the role of servant leaders that cater to employees' personal and professional growth needs and thus ensuring employee well-being and learning at work. This is the first attempt to examine the mediation of HAW in the servant leadership-learning relationship, contingent on employees' PC.

Sustainable development is an emerging field of research. Sustainable leadership is an effective leadership style but to enhance its effect authentic leadership, which is a new field of effective leadership. Authentic leadership is a multi-dimensional theory, and it has a resemblance to transformational leadership theory. Authentic leadership is a general term, and it can consolidate transformational, charismatic, servant, spiritual, or other forms of leadership styles. Organizational learning is something new introduced by modern management and leadership styles as a strategic tool to improve competitiveness and to even out the organization’s success and compatibility. This research examines methods of implanting sustainable and authentic leadership into sustainable development goals (SDGs) and examined the mediating role of organizational learning between sustainable leadership and SDGs (economic performance, environmental performance, and social performance) as well as the mediating role of organizational learning between authentic leadership and SDGs. The data in this study was collected from the manufacturing industries of Pakistan using a convenient sampling technique. IBM SPSS Statistics tool was used to analyze the data. The results show (a) sustainable leadership has a positive impact on organizational learning (b) authentic leadership has a positive impact on organizational learning (c) organizational learning mediates the relationship between sustainable leadership and SDGs (d) organizational learning mediates the relationship between authentic leadership and economic performance. (e) Organizational learning mediates the relationship between authentic leadership and social performance. The present study offered a detailed study of dynamic capabilities and sustainable development. Effective leadership and management styles are proposed for organizations to combat sustainable development challenges.

PurposeThe importance of innovation has attracted growing attention due to the complex and rapidly changing business environment. This study aimed, first, to examine the joint effect of servant and authentic leadership (AUL) styles on employee creativity (EC), second, to examine the direct and mediated effect of servant leadership (SL) on employees' innovative work behaviour (IWB), third, to examine the effect of EC on IWB and finally, to investigate the moderating effect of creative self-efficacy (CSE) on the relationship between AUL and EC.Design/methodology/approachA quantitative approach was used, and the data were collected from 446 employees in the Qatari public sector. The data were then analysed by employing partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) using SmartPLS software to validate the measures before testing the proposed model.FindingsThe results of this study emphasized the strong hypothesized link between EC and IWB. It also endorsed the mediating role of EC between SL and IWB and the moderating role of CSE in the AUL-EC relationship.Originality/valueThe originality of this study comes from various aspects. First, it is unique in separately examining EC and innovation and the link between them. Second, it investigates the joint impact of servant and AUL styles on EC. Third, it explores the mediating role of EC between SL and IWB. Fourth, the moderating effect of CSE on the AUL-EC link also was examined to gain a full understanding of the relation effect. Finally, the value of the current study also comes from the integration of the triangular theory of creativity, SL and AUL theories and self-efficacy theory to explain the proposed model of the study. Moreover, this study serves as a guideline for decision-makers on how to enhance IWB among employees by focusing on leadership programmes and the creative and innovative culture.

PurposeLeadership has a powerful influence on learning and development in today's organizations. Various types of leadership have been found to be conducive to building a learning organization. This empirical study compared the effect of transformational and servant leadership on a learning organization (an organization that constantly transforms itself using learning and development techniques) in the context of Chinese small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).Design/methodology/approachFour proposed hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling.FindingsThe results show that servant leadership has no significant relationship to learning organization, whereas transformational leadership is a strong predictor.Originality/valueThis research compares two different leadership styles and presents theoretical and practical implications for scholars and practitioners. In particular, this study advances our understanding of how and which leadership style relates to learning organization by examining a structural model with three latent variables: servant leadership, transformational leadership, and learning organization.

This research investigates the synergistic effects of servant and teacher leadership on team mindfulness and self-directed learning readiness among secondary school teachers, utilizing a multilevel analysis approach. Drawing on a sample of 929 teachers from 76 Greek public schools, the study employs Multilevel Modeling and Pathway Analysis to examine these relationships. The results indicate that servant leadership’s dimensions of Emotional Healing (β = 0.06, p < .01) and Empowering (β = 0.05, p < .01) have a small but significant impact on self-directed learning readiness. Teacher leadership serves as a moderating factor, strengthening the relationship between servant leadership and team mindfulness (β = 0.12, p < .01). Team mindfulness emerges as a significant mediator (β = 0.33, 95% CI: [0.21, 0.45]), reinforcing the connection between leadership and autonomous learning. These findings highlight the interactive role of servant and teacher leadership in fostering mindfulness and enhancing self-directed learning among educators. The study advocates for the integration of these leadership styles as a strategic approach to promote educational innovation, professional development, and improved student outcomes.

Previous research has shown that military units operating in the context of risky missions display the characteristics of a Learning Organization. The present work provides preliminary exploratory evidence about the association between Learning Organization characteristics and leadership styles used by military leaders in the field. Based on the literature, we hypothesized that higher Learning Organization characteristics would be associated with a more transformational style of leadership that inspires followers. With this purpose, the five characteristics of a Learning Organization as defined by Peter Senge (Systems Thinking, Team Learning, Shared Vision, Mental Models, and Personal Mastery) and leadership styles as defined by the multifactor leadership model of Bass and Avolio (Transformational, Transactional, and Passive-Avoidant), were measured among commanding officers who had recently served in a mission abroad. Associations with organizational outcomes (Extra-Effort, Effectiveness, and Satisfaction) were also investigated for both Learning Organization characteristics and leadership styles. The correlations showed that Learning Organization characteristics were highly related to Transformational leadership dimensions, and also with Transactional leadership based on Contingent Rewards; meanwhile no association was found with a Passive-Avoidant leadership. Organizational outcomes were also related to Transformational leadership, Contingent Rewards and to various characteristics of a Learning Organization. Implications of these results, as well as avenues for future research, are also discussed.

Purpose This study examines how servant and despotic leadership influence work engagement, mediated by identification with the leader and moderated by employees’ political skill. Design/methodology/approach The proposed linkages were tested in three studies: a three-wave survey of employees working in various industries (study 1, n = 258) to test mediating and moderating effects; experiments testing the first path of the mediation model with employees working in the telecom sector (study 2a, n = 154), and the second path with employees working in the education sector (study 2b, n = 130). Findings The results revealed that identification with the leader mediates servant leadership–work engagement and despotic leadership–work engagement links. Specifically, the findings from the experimental studies (2a and 2b), employing a causal-chain method, provided support for the mediation model, with study 2a testing the first path and study 2b testing the second path, thereby corroborating the findings from the survey study (study 1). Furthermore, the data from study 1, a multi-wave survey, supported the moderating role of employees’ political skill, highlighting its influence on the relationship between leadership styles (servant and despotic) and work engagement. Practical implications Based on the results, this study recommends that organizations prioritize fostering servant leadership. Additionally, organizations should implement training programs to enhance employees’ political skills, enabling them to navigate leadership challenges and mitigate the adverse effects of authoritarian, destructive, highly self-centered, and vengeful leadership, which will contribute to fostering a more engaged workforce. Originality/value This research contributes to leadership literature by demonstrating the indirect effects of constructive and destructive leadership on work engagement through identification with the leader. It also highlights the moderating role of employees’ political skills, offering insights into how their political skills can alter the relationship between leadership styles and their own work engagement.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore the role of exploration/exploitation strategies in organizational learning and the impact of strategic leadership on the organizational learning process.Design/methodology/approachBased on an extensive review of literature, this paper develops propositions encompassing three key elements: exploration/exploitation, strategic leadership and organizational learning.FindingsThe propositions inform that tension between exploration and exploitation creates opportunities for organizational learning. Further, leadership styles have a differential effect on the role of exploration/exploitation in organizational learning. Transformational leadership positively impacts the role of exploration in individual and group learning but negatively impacts the role of exploitation in institutionalized learning. Transactional leadership positively impacts the role of exploitation in institutionalized learning but negatively impacts the role of exploration in individual and group learning. The alternate use of transformational and transactional leadership styles can facilitate multilevel organizational learning.Research limitations/implicationsThe propositions are the first step toward the development of a theory of exploration/exploitation–organizational learning–strategic leadership. For practitioners, this paper elaborates the role of exploration/exploitation and strategic leadership in multilevel organizational learning. The paper also informs about those leadership styles that are counterproductive in the individual/group and institutionalized learning.Originality/valueThis paper is novel in its contribution because exploration/exploitation, organizational learning and strategic leadership have not been discussed in a unified framework in the previous studies. Further, whereas previous studies discuss “organizational learning” mainly as an organizational-level construct, this paper discusses organizational learning at the individual, group and organizational levels. A discussion of the individual, group and institutionalized learning furnishes rich insights into organizational learning dynamics.

Purpose - Universities are unique institutions that require different leadership styles to achieve their goals. Therefore, this research examines the effect of transformational, servant, and spiritual leadership on the Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) of lecturers. Methodology - The research adopted a quantitative approach, using a questionnaire with a Likert scale to collect data. Purposive sampling was utilized to obtain 120 participants. The SEM-PLS analysis was employed to test the research hypothesis. Findings - The results showed that transformational leadership did not have a significant impact on OCB. Meanwhile, both servant and spiritual leadership had a positive effect on OCB. Among the three leadership styles, spiritual leadership was effective in universities, specifically in developing organizational behavior. Originality - Previous research on leadership in educational institutions only focuses on one or a few leadership styles. The current research is unique because it examines the influence of three leadership styles on OCB in universities. The variables in the proposed model are new constructs that necessitate further investigation in order to gain a better understanding of their relationship with OCB.

Background Healthcare worker attrition remains a major challenge in rural Ghana, undermining access to quality care and continuity of services. While financial and infrastructural constraints have received extensive attention, the role of leadership in shaping workforce motivation and retention is less understood. This study investigates how different leadership styles influence healthcare worker satisfaction, engagement, and intent to remain in rural health facilities. Methods A mixed-methods design was adopted, combining quantitative and qualitative data. Structured Likert-scale surveys were administered to 220 healthcare professionals, complemented by open-ended responses from 74 participants. Quantitative analysis employed correlation and regression techniques to examine the impact of transformational, servant, democratic, participative, and autocratic leadership on job satisfaction and retention outcomes. Qualitative responses were analyzed thematically to contextualize the statistical patterns observed. Results The findings revealed a clear contrast between servant and autocratic leadership styles. Servant leadership demonstrated strong negative correlations with attrition intent (e.g., r = –0.29 for trust) and positive correlations with intent to stay (r = +0.44 for well-being), indicating that empathy, trust, and staff-centered support enhance motivation and loyalty. Conversely, autocratic leadership showed positive correlations with attrition (r = +0.30 for rule enforcement) and negative correlations with intent to stay (r ≈ –0.11), signifying that rigid, fear-driven supervision erodes morale and engagement. Qualitative narratives reinforced these patterns, describing servant and participative leaders as supportive and communicative, and autocratic leaders as intimidating and disengaging. Conclusion Servant, participative, and democratic leadership styles promote psychological safety, teamwork, and retention, whereas autocratic leadership accelerates turnover. Embedding empathy, inclusion, and feedback into leadership development is critical for strengthening Ghana’s rural health workforce. Cultivating servant and participative leadership can foster organizational learning, resilience, and sustainability—key enablers of Universal Health Coverage in resource-limited settings.

PurposeThis study examines the mediation effects of leaders' communication competency in the link between leadership styles (i.e. servant and transactional leadership) and employees' work engagement.Design/methodology/approachCross-sectional survey data from 392 employees in 33 hotels in Bangladesh were collected. To analyze the data, structural equation modeling was adopted, and partial least squares (PLS) analysis was used.FindingsResults of PLS analysis revealed that servant leaders and leaders' communication competency positively influence employees' work engagement. In boosting employees' work engagement, communication competency is an important tool for servant leadership but not for transactional leadership.Practical implicationsHoteliers and managers may want to adopt a servant leadership style and develop effective leadership communication skills to increase employees' engagement at work.Originality/valueThis study introduces communication competency as a mediating mechanism between leadership styles and work engagement in the hospitality industry.

Opportunities for Leadership Expression in a Learning Organization

This study analyses the leadership style, organizational commitment, and learning organization at PT XYZ. how leadership style affects the learning organization, and how organizational commitment affects the learning organization. A survey that included information on leadership styles, organizational commitment and learning organization was used to collect data from 114 employee of PT XYZ. The results show that leadership style and organizational commitment is in the "strong" category, and learning organization is in the "very strong" category. Leadership style and organizational commitment have a significant influence on learning organization. This study gave insight that organizational commitment has a stronger influence compared to leadership style in supporting the development of a learning organization. Keywords: leadership style, organizational commitment, learning organization