Self-Alienating Citizenship and the Making of Docile Citizens: The Case of the Politically Disputed Territory of Gilgit-Baltistan

The purpose of writing this article is to reorient Pancasila and Citizenship Education in Elementary Schools in the discourse of smart and good citizenship, examining the discourse of citizenship. The method used in this article is library research. The data collection technique is carried out by coding data. The data analysis carried out in this research was inductive, namely with two stages in the form of data reduction and presentation of document data. The results of the analysis show that the reorientation of Pancasila and Citizenship Education in Elementary Schools in the citizenship discourse is an affirmation that Pancasila and Citizenship Education is part of character education. Through this article, the researcher recommends that future researchers conduct extensive and in-depth studies regarding Pancasila and Citizenship Education in Elementary Schools.

For citizenship education in the 21st century, globalization increasingly presents a new challenge and a new opportunity. Since the time when nationalism played a critical role in unifying new nations, nationality and citizenship have been virtually synonymous terms. As a result, the constructed symbiosis of citizenship and national identity has influenced state supported citizenship education in the most profound way. School curricula, particularly in public schools, produced and reinforced the dominant version of citizenship, which is national citizenship. Schools were expected to prepare future loyal citizens who would identify themselves with the nation.Due to the changing nature and scope of human interactions, the traditional model of citizenship education, however, appears increasingly outdated and deficient to address many contemporary challenges. Thus, schools have become a locus of a potential conflict of two citizenship discourses: the discourse of national citizenship that for a long time has served as the ultimate purpose of public education and the discourse of global citizenship that is forcefully and continuously seeking for a proper place in school curricula despite the lack of curricular heritage. The need for an education for citizenship that has a global scope and is guided by critical and emancipatory approaches becomes more evident. At the same time, the pressure to globalize and internationalize curriculum actively challenges such concepts as patriotism, national identity, loyalty to the state, or national uniqueness of government and democratic development that have been fundamental for citizenship and civic education for decades.In this book, a group of international scholars present their research about the dynamic development, interplay, and interconnectedness of two major discourses in citizenship education, namely national and global. Case studies and ethnographies from China, Cyprus, Egypt, Hong Kong and Singapore, Lebanon, Liberia, the Netherlands, Russia, and the United States display a multifaceted but yet comprehensive picture of educators’ attempts to promote social justice, global awareness, and multiple loyalties. The volume will appeal to several constituencies: it will be interesting to teachers and teacher educators whose focus of instruction is citizenship education, social studies education, and global education; it will also be interesting to scholars who conduct research in citizenship and global education.

We argue two major difficulties in current discourses of citizenship education. The first is a relative masking of student discourses of citizenship by positioning students as lacking citizenship and as outside the community that acts. The second is in failing to understand the discursive and material support for citizenship activity. We, thus, argue that it is not a lack of citizenship that education research might address, but identification and exploration of the different forms of citizenship that students already engage in. We offer a fragmentary, poststructuralist theorization oriented to explore the ‘contemporary limits of the necessary’, drawing on specific resources from the work of Michel Foucault and others for the constitution of local, partial accounts of citizenship discourses and activities, and exploration of their possibilities and constraints. We argue this as a significant tactic of theorization in support of an opening of discourses of citizenship and in avoiding the discursive difficulties that we have identified. Our theorization, then, is significant in its potential to unsettle discourses that confine contemporary thought regarding citizenship education and support exploration of what might be excessive to that confinement.

Background/ContextFor centuries, the notions of citizenship and citizenship education have been associated with the nation-state and civic elements. However, since the late 20th century, these traditional notions have been challenged by globalization. In the discourse of globalization, citizenship, and citizenship education, some scholars suggest a simplistic replacement or shift from national citizenship to global citizenship, regional citizenship, or local and group identities. Against these simplistic, single-leveled approaches is the argument for both the continuing importance of nation-specific characteristics of citizenship and the strong need to diversify the nation-state-oriented and civic-specific framework to form multileveled and multidimensional ones. They accommodate individuals’ engagement in the various domains of human activities and their memberships at various levels, ranging from individual to community, local, national, and international or global ones. Some scholars have advocated a multidimensional model of citizenship education by regrouping human relationships and activities into four major dimensions—personal, social, spatial, and temporal—which can intersect with various levels in the multilevel polity. However, these general, static frameworks are not backed by strong empirical evidence and do not explain the complexity of interplay among different actors at the same level and/or between levels.PurposeThe purpose of the article is twofold. First, it aims to provide empirical evidence for the general framework of multileveled and multidimensional citizenship education by assessing students’ views of citizenship in a multileveled polity with reference to Hong Kong and Shanghai in China. Second, with the help of the comparative study, the article is intended to supplement the general framework by proposing a theoretical framework that explains the complex interplay of different actors in their choices of citizenship elements from a multileveled polity.SettingThe study took place in three public junior secondary schools in Shanghai and three aided secondary schools in Hong Kong and assessed their students’ views of the global, national, local, and personal-social domains of multiple identities in a multileveled polity.Research DesignThe study adopted a mixed methodology of observations, questionnaires, and interview surveys to collect data.Data Collection and AnalysisData are drawn from questionnaires completed by 1,402 students attending Grades 7–9, and 38 interviews with principals, teachers, and students from both societies between 2002 and 2003.Conclusions/RecommendationsThe study shows that although students of Hong Kong and Shanghai were aware of having multiple citizenships, some of their views of the relative importance of, and the interrelationships among, four dimensions of citizenship differed. The patterns of their perceptions of multiple citizenships reflect similarities and differences in the organization of citizenship education between schools in Hong Kong and Shanghai, the nation-state's influences on local citizenship curricula, and local governments’ development considerations in remaking collective identity. With the help of the comparative study, the article supplements the general framework by proposing a theoretical framework for interpreting citizenship and citizenship education as dynamic, context-bounded, and multi-leveled social constructions reinvented through the intertwined interactions of different actors in response to social changes, including globalization.

For almost two years we were engaged with teachers from four secondary schools in historically disadvantaged communities on the implementation of citizenship education in schools. This project culminated in the design, development, production and implementation of a ‘manual’ for rethinking citizenship education in schools. On the one hand, having produced a ‘manual’ for implementation implies having conjured up some preliminary thoughts on citizenship education in collaboration with teachers, particularly on how students can be initiated into a discourse of citizenship education.KeywordsGender StereotypeTeenage PregnancySchool LeaderSchool CommunityGang MemberThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Meanings of “citizenship,” a concept that has informed teaching practices since nation-states first institutionalized schooling, are shaped over time and through cultural struggles. This article presents a conceptual framework for the discourses that currently construct the meanings of citizenship in contemporary Western cultures, particularly the United States. Using discourse analysis, the authors examine texts related to citizenship and citizenship education from 1990 through 2003, identifying seven distinct but overlapping frameworks that ascribe meaning to citizenship. The “civic republican” and “liberal” frameworks are the most influential in shaping current citizenship education; five others are the most active in contesting the terrain of citizenship practices in lived political arenas. The “transnational” and “critical” discourses have yet to significantly challenge the dominant discourses that shape citizenship education in schools. This article questions the view of political life in Western democracies that is promoted by the dominant discourses of citizenship in K–12 schooling.

There has been an explosion of interest in the concept of citizenship among political theorists. In 1978, it could be confidently stated that "the concept of citizenship has gone out of fashion among political thinkers" (van Gunsteren 1978, p. 9). Fifteen years later, citizenship has become the "buzz word" among thinkers on all points of the political spectrum (Heater 1990, p. 293; Vogel and Moran 1991, p. x). There are a number of reasons for this renewed interest in citizenship in the 1990s. At the level of theory, it is a natural evolution in political discourse because the concept of citizenship seems to integrate the demands ofjustice and community membership-the central concepts of political philosophy in the 1970s and 1980s, respectively. Citizenship is intimately linked to ideas of individual entitlement on the one hand and of attachment to a particular community on the other. Thus it may help clarify what is really at stake in the debate between liberals and communitarians. Interest in citizenship has also been sparked by a number of recent political events and trends throughout the world-increasing voter apathy and long-term welfare dependency in the United States, the resurgence of nationalist movements in Eastern Europe, the stresses created by an increasingly multicultural and multiracial population in Western Europe, the backlash against the welfare state in Thatcher's England, the failure of environmental policies that rely on voluntary citizen cooperation, and so forth. These events have made clear that the health and stability of a modern democracy depends, not only on the justice of its 'basic structure' but also on the qualities and attitudes of its citizens:' for example,

Pakistan is a Muslim majority country where Islamic values dominate the political landscape and inform socio-political ideals and practices. Islam therefore plays a vital role in shaping education and its narratives. The official discourse on citizenship education is a case in point. This appears fixated with the construction of nationhood, defined in Islamic terms, rather than promoting a rights-based discourse on citizenship. Against this background, the study reported here explores the perspectives of a group of Pakistani citizenship education teachers on how they make sense of citizenship as a curriculum experience for students. We thematically analysed teachers’ interviews within an interpretive framework. The results suggest that citizenship discourse is significantly influenced by the interrelationship between Islam and modernity in Muslim societies. Our findings revealed two main approaches: some teachers attempted to Islamise the concept of citizenship for students by identifying its basis within a broad interpretation of Islam, and others had a comparatively liberal approach to citizenship. Both groups generally promoted equal citizenship, although they justified it from two distinct epistemic positions. We also identified distinctive features of citizenship that are illustrative of the Muslim context.

This article is about interwar Britain, civic education, and the theoretical and practical expression of local citizenship. Building upon recent analyses in urban history that have reassessed the perception of municipal and civic decline, I argue that historians must now also challenge the historiography that views citizenship as indivisible from national identity. It was indeed actually common for both children and adults to be taught that it was in the local, and the city especially, that the rights and responsibilities of citizenship were received and enacted. I trace this distinctive conception of citizenship to the ideological resilience of the Victorian idealist philosopher Thomas Hill Green. Drawing on his justification for state intervention to ensure individual liberty, educators positioned municipal government as the guardian of the life and health of individuals and communities—an educational approach they termed civics. This was apparent in organizations such as the National Association of Local Government Officers, Workers’ Educational Association, and the Association for Education in Citizenship, and expressed through the flood of civics textbooks published following the First World War. Using a case study of Manchester I unpick the points of contact between these organizations and the individuals connected to Green, and show how civics was applied in both formal and informal sites of education. While this discourse of citizenship was damaged by the social democracy of the post-1945 welfare state, I conclude that, in the interwar period at least, citizenship was still very much local and urban based.

This paper examines the discourses framing citizenship education in Ukraine and Russia from perestroika to the present and assesses the role of the Council of Europe in promoting democratic citizenship in both countries. We argue that there is a tension between the discourses of active citizenship, strongly disseminated by international agencies (the Council of Europe in our case), and national consolidation, pursued by Ukraine and Russia since the fall of the Soviet regime. While the beginning of the 1990s was marked by democratization and individualization, from the mid‐1990s the emphasis on state cohesion became more prominent in both states. From the end of the 1990s, however, citizenship education aims started to diverge, despite a similar approach of the Council of Europe to the two countries. In Russia the government reinforced the state cohesion agenda, which led to the patriotic education discourse gaining strength. In Ukraine, nation‐building was made secondary to bringing the education system in line with international standards in order to improve the country’s competitiveness. The nature of citizenship education in the two countries therefore seems to be more a reflection of domestic political developments than the product of international policy agenda.

The idea of citizen and the school discipline of civics, which is entrusted with the responsibility to create an ideal citizen, have colonial imprints. Both citizenship and civics have traversed through postcolonial histories of nation-building, state formation, modernity, and democracy/authoritarianism in South Asian nation-states of India and Pakistan. In the context of globalization, the idea of a citizen has also been marked with discourses of global citizenship, identity-based movements, and a reassertion of nationalism. This chapter situates civics in the context of these histories and transitions. Drawing on existing research, it also analyzes the contestations over inclusions and exclusions from citizenship as represented in the school subjects of civics, social studies, and citizenship education. The dominant pedagogic practices of the subject and alternatives to them, along with a discussion of gaps in existing research and potential news areas of study, are highlighted.KeywordsCitizenshipCivicsIndiaPakistanGlobal citizenship education

Discussions of citizenship and citizenship education have been conducted largely within the worldview of stable, Western societies and have been based on psychological models that emphasize individual cognition. The concepts of citizenship that evolved in this context have become taken for granted. But during the past decade, different concepts of citizenship have arisen from emergent democracies, from societies in transition, from the dissolution of the left‐right spectrum in Western society, and from a changing perspective in psychological theory that attends to language and to social and cultural context. These developments have implications for defining the goals of citizenship education and for formulating educational programs, particularly in relation to identity, positioning, narratives, and efficacy.

This volume, the third in our series, is part of a deliberate effort to identify and analyse distinctive characteristics of citizenship education in Asia and the Pacific. In our first volume, Citizenship Education in Asia and the Pacific: Concepts and Issues (Lee, Grossman, Kennedy, & Fairbrother, 2004), we established that there are identifiable perspectives in citizenship education that can be characterised as ‘Asian-Pacific’. The regional perspectives have significant features that contribute to the academic discourse of citizenship and citizenship education and the international literature. Specifically, Kennedy and Fairbrother (2004) identified seven citizenship education themes in Asia-Pacific societies: 1. Asian countries are characterised by multiple modernities that provide rich and complex contexts for the development of citizenship education. 2. Asian citizenship education is characterised more by conceptions of moral virtues and personal values than by civic and public values. 3. Civil society is constructed differently in the West and in Asian countries, but it nevertheless can play an important role. 4. The nation-state plays the same role in Asian and Western countries in relation to citizenship education. 5. There is tension between citizenship education, school subjects, and the academic curriculum. 6. Teachers are key players when it comes to the implementation of citizenship education in school. 7. Student agency in responding to citizenship education needs to be taken into consideration.

The field of citizenship education witnessed an expanding body of literature looking at the case of China. Yet citizenship with broad conceptual terrain often refers to different things in the literature. This paper foregrounds the common core of the essentially contested concept of citizenship and considers citizenship conception as discourse. By engaging with and drawing evidence from extant literature, this paper critically examines citizenship in the academic and related official and social discourses. It discloses the discursive conformity among the academic, official, and social discourses of citizenship in mainland China and discusses the politics beneath the conformity. It suggests that the fundamental values of liberty and equality constitutive of the common core of citizenship should not be lost but localized to serve as the conceptual and analytical compass in the contestation of citizenship and citizenship education discourses in contemporary China.

During the past few decades, the decline in citizenship solidarity and legitimacy within democracies has been under debate. This crisis has been brought about by empowered separatist identity-politics. With a unique approach in mind, using narrative discourse analysis of 12 interviews with Israeli celebrities, this study reveals a new model of inclusive discourse of citizenship. By publicly sharing their personal stories and political ideas, and using their public images as role models in the national consensus, the celebrities act as agents of political discursive change. They express disappointment in celebrity life and separatist, Israeli, identity-politics, and, in reaction, formulate an alternative construction of the concept of citizenship, one that is based upon their personal, spiritual story and ‘Jew Age’ identity. By redefining Israeli-ness on a common, spiritual basis, the celebrities are forging an inclusive, democratic discourse of citizenship, which combines both primordial-local, Jewish, communal traditions, and global, western-orientated, New Age culture. This article thus offers a new perspective on the relations between celebrity politics, contemporary spirituality, and citizenship studies, by re-examining the ability of contemporary democracies to create a reliable and inclusive concept of citizenship, under post-secular, identity politics, through celebrity action in civil society as discourse agents.