Secondary school leaders’ lack of knowledge of abuse in adolescent intimate partner relationships in Northern Ireland, a post-conflict region

Traditionally, when researchers have examined violence and abuse in intimate or romantic relationships, attention has focused on adult relationships. This is of note, considering that the study of adolescent relationship violence was initiated in the early 1980s, merely a decade or so later than the study of violence in adult relationships. The interest in violent and abusive adolescent relationships has grown exponentially since then. A Google Scholar search using the terms adolescent + ‘dating violence’ returned: 71 papers dated between 1980 and 1990; 751 dated between 1991 and 2000; 4,440 dated between 2001 and 2010; and 3,410 dated between 2011 and March 2014. This intervening time period has seen changes in how young people’s relationships are understood and appraised, and also in how policy has acknowledged and responded to such behaviours in adolescent romantic relationships. Alongside advances in our understanding of the nature, antecedents and consequences of violence and abuse in adolescent romantic relationships, has been an increase in the development of primary and secondary interventions and their evaluation. Given the increase in research activity in this field, and more recent policy focus on this issue it seems prudent to consolidate what we know about violence and abuse in adolescent relationships and how to prevent it; this is the ultimate aim of this book.

Chronic insecurities that emerge from adverse experiences in early intimate partner relationships in adolescence and emerging adulthood can have profound impacts on mental health and well‐being. Less clear is the extent to which these experiences for parents impact subsequent relationships within and across generations. We examine the extent to which secure, dismissing, pre‐occupied, and fearful intimate partner relationships in adolescence and emerging adulthood, well before becoming a parent, are associated with next‐generation patterns of attachment between mothers and infant offspring. Data were drawn from a nested study of infant–mother attachment (n = 220) within the Australian Temperament Project Generation 3 Study (N = 1167, est. 1983). Intimate partner relationships in adolescence and young adulthood were assessed by self‐report at 23–24 years of age. Over a decade later, infant–mother attachment security was assessed at 12 months post‐partum. Young adult intimate partner relationships defined by high levels of fearful, pre‐occupied, and dismissing attachment styles were reported in 11%, 17%, and 38% of young mothers, respectively. Increases in fear of intimacy in relationships were associated with an increase in the odds, by around 50%, of infant–mother insecure attachments (vs secure; OR = 1.56, 95% CI = 1.07, 2.28) and disorganised attachments (vs organised; OR = 1.49, 95% CI = 1.00, 2.22). A mother's self‐reported history of fear of intimacy within young adult relationships predicts later insecure and disorganised mother–infant attachments. Guidance and greater support for young people navigating their earliest intimate relationships may not only prevent adverse relational experiences at the time but also on becoming a parent. Findings have relevance for family and infant mental health therapies. Translating these findings into supported conversations may help prevent infant–mother attachment difficulties, or later repair them, through validation of the lingering effects of early fear of intimacy and empowerment of parents to prevent next‐generation infant experiences of distrust.

This study examined the associations between the quality of adolescents' peer and family relationships and the quality of their young adult romantic relationships. Adolescents (N = 253) completed self-report measures of their family and peer relationships in grades 10–12; 7 years later, they reported on connectedness, discord, and the conflict tactics used by both partners in their current romantic relationships. Family relationship quality in adolescence predicted the levels of connectedness, discord, and specific conflict behaviors youth reported in their adult romantic relationships. The use of discussion to resolve conflict mediated the association between adolescent family relationships and the level of connectedness in adult romantic relationships. Moreover, use of discussion and physical conflict/threat each partially mediated the effect of family relationship quality on romantic discord. Possible mechanisms linking family of origin relationships to adult romantic relationships are discussed.

The aim of the current study is to explore the association between power perception and emotional abuse, with power satisfaction as a mediating factor, and to determine the prevalence of reciprocal emotional abuse within adolescent romantic relationships. The sample consisted of 184 (15-18 years) in romantic relationships for at least six months and were students at SMAS A, SMKN B, and SMAN C, selected using a purposive sampling technique. Data were collected using the Multidimensional Measure of Emotional Abuse Scale and Power Perception and Power Satisfaction Scale. The scale reliability indicates good results, α ≥ 0.8 for MMEA dimensions and α > 0.66 for Power scale. Data were analyzed using the causal step method. The analysis results show that power perception, mediated by power satisfaction, does not significantly affect emotional abuse in adolescents (p > 0.05). In adolescents, the power perception tends to be the same, and they generally experience high power satisfaction. The research also shows that emotional abuse between adolescents with romantic relationships occurs reciprocally (p < 0.01; r > 0.194). The research results are expected to contribute to future studies and the design or development of interventions aimed at preventing emotional abuse in adolescent relationships.

Considerable evidence shows that adolescent intimate relationships influence the course of adult relationships, that is, whether relationship experiences are characterized by abuse or violence, or healthy, equitable dynamics. Controlling behaviors (CBs)—a phenomenon related to intimate partner violence (IPV)—are pervasive in adolescent intimate relationships, yet there is a lack of consensus on how to conceptualize them and subsequently, limited research which explores the role of CBs, including their role as warning signs for other forms of harm and abuse. As such, there are gaps in integrating CBs in policy and program interventions that could prevent IPV from the earliest stages. This article presents findings from in-depth qualitative research on adolescent relationship violence conducted in under studied settings of Brazil and Honduras. Adolescents described using or experiencing CBs in at least one form in 147 interviews with girls/young women and boys/young men aged 14–24 in rural and urban sites. Drawing from these empirical findings and conceptual and theoretical aspects from the literature, this article analyzes CBs in adolescent relationships and how they relate to IPV. By doing so, it seeks to offer a conceptual framework on CBs that could better inform policies and programs by being reflective of adolescent experiences, and ultimately more nuanced in promoting healthy adolescent relationships.

This longitudinal study examines 92 white middle-class participants' descriptions of their friendship networks from childhood to late adolescence, and their romantic relationships from middle to late adolescence. As expected, having larger other-sex friendship networks in early adolescence is related to the development of affiliative qualities in romantic relationships in middle adolescence and the maintenance of longer relationships in middle and late adolescence. In addition, girls have larger other-sex friendship networks than boys and are more likely to describe romantic relationships in terms of self-disclosure and support as well as other qualities of close friendships. The findings are discussed as they pertain to the importance of other-sex friendships and gender for the timing and trajectories of adolescent romantic relationships.

The emergence of romantic relationships in early adolescence seldom has been examined within a contextual framework. To date, most theoretical writing on romantic relationships in adolescence has focused on the intraindividual developments characteristic of the adolescent years presumed to affect youngsters' capacity for, and interest in, intimate relationships with age-mates. Much of this work has been informed by psychoanalytic (Freud, 1958), Eriksonian (Erikson, 1959), and Sullivanian views of adolescent development (Buhrmester & Furman, 1987; Furman, this volume; Furman & Wehner, 1994; Sullivan, 1953). Among the factors thought to influence the emergence and progression of romantic relationships are the biological changes of puberty (believed to stimulate interest in sexuality and, consequently, in romance), the onset of abstract thinking (believed to increase youngsters' social cognitive abilities and, accordingly, their capacity for engagement in more interpersonally sophisticated relationships), and changes in individuals' need for intimacy (believed to steer youngsters to relationships that integrate emotional intimacy and sexuality). Empirical research on the subject, sparse as it is, has focused mainly on the meaning and nature of intimate relationships to individual adolescents – how young people view romantic relationships, what takes place within romantic dyads, and what adolescents seek in their intimate partners (e.g., Feiring, 1996).

Intensity in adolescent romantic relationships was examined as a long-term predictor of higher adult blood pressure in a community sample followed from age 17 to 31 years. Romantic intensity in adolescence - measured via the amount of time spent alone with a partner and the duration of the relationship - was predicted by parents' psychologically controlling behavior and was in turn found to predict higher resting adult systolic and diastolic blood pressure even after accounting for relevant covariates. The prediction to adult blood pressure was partially mediated via conflict in nonromantic adult friendships and intensity in adult romantic relationships. Even after accounting for these mediators, however, a direct path from adolescent romantic intensity to higher adult blood pressure remained. Neither family income in adolescence nor trait measures of personality assessed in adulthood accounted for these findings. The results of this study are interpreted both as providing further support for the view that adolescent social relationship qualities have substantial long-term implications for adult health, as well as suggesting a potential physiological mechanism by which adolescent relationships may be linked to adult health outcomes.

The complexity of adolescents' dating and sexual lives is not easily operationalized with simple indicators of dating or sexual activity. While building on prior work that emphasizes the "risky" nature of adolescents' intimate relationships, we assess whether a variety of indicators reflecting the complexity of adolescents' relationships influence early adult well-being (i.e., depressive symptoms, self-esteem, gainful activity, intimate partner violence, and relationship quality). Our analysis of longitudinal data from the Toledo Adolescent Relationships Study showed that the number of adolescent dating and sexual partners does not uniformly influence indicators of young adult well-being, which is at odds with a risk framework. The number of dating partners with whom the individual was sexually active, and not the number of "casual" sex partners, increased the odds of intimate partner violence during young adulthood. Relationship churning and sexual nonexclusivity during adolescence were associated with lower relationship quality during young adulthood. Sexual nonexclusivity during adolescence influenced self-reports of depressive symptoms and lower self-esteem among young adults. Future research should develop more nuanced conceptualizations of adolescent dating and sexual relationships and integrate adolescent dating and sexual experiences into research on early adult well-being.

For several decades, social psychologists have tilled the fertile fields of interpersonal attraction and close relationships, with impressive results. It is now possible to predict with some certainty the course and future of an adult romantic relationship on the basis of the behaviors and attitudes of the participants (Fletcher & Fincham, 1991; Gottman, 1994). Unfortunately, the study of adolescent romantic relationships has not kept apace with these advances; models generated to describe adult relationships have not been applied systematically to those during adolescence. In this chapter we discuss the nature and functions of adolescent romantic relationships, integrating prevailing theories of social exchange with a developmental perspective on close relationships. Social exchange theory (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978; Thibaut & Kelley, 1959) provides a popular and compelling framework for understanding adult romantic relationships (Clark & Reis, 1988). Economic principles are extended to interpersonal behavior: Individuals establish and maintain relationships that proffer optimal rewards relative to costs. Widely recognized by social psychologists, exchange theory awaits developmental applications (Graziano, 1984; Laursen, 1996). This oversight is not an indictment of the theory but a manifestation of conceptual neglect in the area of adolescent close peer relationships (Furman, 1993).

Family, friendship, and romantic relationships are considered to be the most important close relationships in one’s life (Demir, 2010). The current study sought to examine the role of adolescent and adult personal (personality) and interpersonal (relationships with parents and peers) factors as predictors of adult romantic relationship quality. The study also aimed to examine the association between personality and relationship factors and the absence or presence of a romantic relationship in adulthood. The data for this study came from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), which is a 12-year, 4-wave, longitudinal study. The sample included 1,929 participants who took part in Wave I and Wave IV of the study. Linear regression was utilized to examine the relationship between adolescent and adult personality and relationship factors and romantic relationship quality in adulthood, and to compare the strength of adolescent and adult predictors. Results revealed that adolescent factors were stronger predictors of adult romantic relationship quality, with adolescent conscientiousness being the strongest predictor amongst variables. Logistic regression was also used to determine the association between personality and relationship factors and relationship status. Findings indicate that a better-quality relationship with an individual’s mother during adolescence and higher levels of extraversion in adulthood, increased the likelihood of being in a romantic relationship in adulthood. The results of this study contribute to the limited amount of existing literature concerning adolescent and adult personality and relationship factors impact on romantic relationship quality in adulthood.

The Effects of Romantic Involvement on Psychological Well-Being in Late Adolescence

Objective: To investigate possible barriers to successful social and sexual relationships in adolescents and young adults of normal intelligence with cerebral palsy. Design: A literature review based on a PubMed and PsycINFO search for the period 1990–2003. Included were studies focusing on one or more of the outcome parameters (i.e. social, intimate and sexual relationships) or on associated factors that described relationships with the outcome parameters. Results: Fourteen papers were selected. Two studies investigated exclusively people with cerebral palsy whereas 12 concerned people with a congenital disability and/or physical disabilities, including people with cerebral palsy. All studies addressed adolescents or adults of normal intelligence. A. Social and sexual relationships: In social relationships adolescents and young adults with cerebral palsy were less active than their age mates, and dating was often delayed and less frequent. Adolescents with congenital disabilities indicated that sexuality is an important aspect of their lives, but they experienced difficulties developing a sexual relationship. B. Associated factors: Psychological maladjustment, insufficient self-efficacy and low sexual self-esteem may impair the development of social and sexual relationships. Overprotection in raising children with cerebral palsy and the negative attitudes of other people may have a negative influence on the self-efficacy of people with cerebral palsy. Conclusion: The reviewed studies suggest many factors that may influence the development of social and sexual relationships in adolescents and young adults with cerebral palsy. However, evidence was found only for the personal factors self-efficacy and sexual self-esteem and their interrelationships with the parents' way of raising their children and successful experiences in social situations.

A key function of romantic relationships is to make people feel accepted and loved, thus promoting well-being. Yet, many relationships do not serve this function. Adults give relationship difficulties as the most common reason for seeking therapy (Veroff, Kulka, & Douvan, 1981). People in conflicted marriages are often depressed (Coyne, Downey, & Boergers, 1994), and intimate violence is a leading cause of injuries to both adult and adolescent women (Browne, 1993; Centers for Disease Control, 1990). Because troubled romantic relationships are both pervasive and costly, there is considerable interest in understanding how relationships are undermined.

Teen dating violence is a serious problem and intervention programs aimed at reducing this violence and helping adolescents to develop healthier romantic relationships are needed. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of the DARSI program on the development of a more adequate perception of love, the reduction of tolerance toward abuse in romantic relationships, and the reduction of the perpetration of dating violence in adolescents. The sample consisted of 129 adolescents, aged 12 to 17 years (M = 14.05, SD = 1.08). A repeated measures (pre-test and post-test) quasi-experimental design with an intervention group and a control group was used to assess the effects of the program. The results showed significant decreases in unhealthy perceptions of love (linking love with control and dependence), tolerance toward abuse in romantic relationships, and dating violence perpetration in the intervention group. Healthier perceptions of love (linking love with respect and communication) were observed in the intervention group after the implementation of this program. These findings support the implementation in educational contexts of programs focused on the development of non-violent and healthy romantic relationships in adolescents.