Searching for Information, from Infancy to Adolescence

This article briefly reviews research in cognitive development concerning the nature of the human self. It then reviews research in developmental robotics that has attempted to retrace parts of the developmental trajectory of the self. This should be of interest to developmental psychologists, and researchers in developmental robotics. As a point of departure, one of the most characteristic aspects of human social interaction is cooperation—the process of entering into a joint enterprise to achieve a common goal. Fundamental to this ability to cooperate is the underlying ability to enter into, and engage in, a self-other relation. This suggests that if we intend for robots to cooperate with humans, then to some extent robots must engage in these self-other relations, and hence they must have some aspect of a self. Decades of research in human cognitive development indicate that the self is not fully present from the outset, but rather that it is developed in a usage-based fashion, that is, through engaging with the world, including the physical world and the social world of animate intentional agents. In an effort to characterize the self, Ulric Neisser noted that self is not unitary, and he thus proposed five types of self-knowledge that correspond to five distinct components of self: ecological, interpersonal, conceptual, temporally extended, and private. He emphasized the ecological nature of each of these levels, how they are developed through the engagement of the developing child with the physical and interpersonal worlds. Crucially, development of the self has been shown to rely on the child's autobiographical memory. From the developmental robotics perspective, this suggests that in principal it would be possible to develop certain aspects of self in a robot cognitive system where the robot is engaged in the physical and social world, equipped with an autobiographical memory system. We review a series of developmental robotics studies that make progress in this enterprise. We conclude with a summary of the properties that are required for the development of these different levels of self, and we identify topics for future research.

ABSTRACT

The neural coding of expected and unexpected monetary performance outcomes: Dissociations between active and observational learning

Research in cognitive development has generally been aligned with the explication and understanding of basic mechanisms underlying change in mental development over time. We suggest here that work done in the measurement and assessment of granular cognitive functions be leveraged toward translational or applied work in order to realize enhanced impact and influence. Specifically, we propose the use of cognitive measures or performance on laboratory-based cognitive tasks as outcomes in clinical trials, as biobehavioral markers for developmental risk or disorders, and perhaps even as intervention methods per se . We argue that this strategy can address changing pressures in both public and private sponsorship as well as contribute to building stronger public support for research endeavors in the field.

BackgroundActive learning is a learning process that promotes student engagement in constructing knowledge and conceptual understanding, improves critical thinking skills and develops professional competency. In recent years there has been a significant shift of emphasis in higher education from passive teacher‐centred didactic teaching to active student‐led learning. Although there is abundant literature about active learning, there is a gap in the knowledge of students' perception regarding factors that affect engagement in active learning activities. This project aimed to explore pre‐clinical year medical students' perception of active learning and examine the factors that affect their participation in active learning activities.MethodsA mixed‐method study was conducted with pre‐clinical medical students at Newcastle University Medical School, UK, and Newcastle University Medicine Malaysia. A total of 266 students participated in an online survey questionnaire, with 25 students participating in focus group discussions (FGD). Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive analysis and qualitative data was analysed with thematic analysis.ResultsThe majority of students (94.7%) recognised that active learning is important for their learning, but had a narrow definition of what active learning constituted, and familiarity with active learning techniques was lacking. Many students' independent learning techniques were centred around methods of ‘active recall’, with factors affecting the utilisation of active learning techniques mainly focused on time availability, group dynamics in active teaching sessions and teaching styles of educators.ConclusionStudents acknowledged the importance of active learning but are generally unfamiliar with ways to effectively utilise a broad range of active learning strategies. This study demonstrated that it is important for educators to understand firstly how students define active learning as well as how students interact with active learning taught sessions, to ensure that they create an environment where students feel confident to engage in active learning techniques.

Over the past 25 years, research in cognitive development has begun to embrace linguistic and cultural diversity. For example, the field has begun to move away from focusing on predominantly WEIRD, English-speaking populations, and rather, moved toward including historically underrepresented groups. The field has also transitioned from deficit perspectives of linguistic and cultural diversity to embrace an asset-based model in which differences from the “norm” in cognitive development are viewed as strengths. Additionally, more continuous representations of linguistic and cultural diversity often complement the more traditional, binary conceptualizations of linguistic (e.g., monolingual vs. bilingual) and cultural (e.g., Eastern vs. Western) backgrounds. Through these more representative accounts of our heterogeneous society, we have gained valuable insights into the development of cognitive processes in children. This mini review will summarize recent research findings in sub-disciplines of cognitive development, including attention, perception, executive function, and language, that were made possible by including linguistically and culturally diverse populations. We also identify future challenges related to systematic measurement and assessment of multilingualism and culture. We conclude by discussing the way forward, including large-scale collaborative efforts in developmental research (e.g., ManyBabies, Wordbank).

My earlier article (Metz, 1995) identified several assumptions about elementary school children’s scientific reasoning abilities that have frequently been used for the purpose of framing “developmental appropriate” science curricula. That article traced the origin of those assumptions to an interpretation of a segment of Piaget’s writings and then critiqued those assumptions of the basis of Piaget’s corpus, as well as the contemporary cognitive developmental research literature. Given that developmental research constituted the primary base on which I critiqued these assumptions and formulated alternative recommendations, lam surprised by Deanna Kuhn’s (1997) contention that the article could be read as suggesting that the developmental literature has “failed” science educators and that they would be advised to look elsewhere to inform their curricular design. Nevertheless, I do consider the relation between cognitive developmental research, as embodied in the contemporary research tradition, and children’s science curricula as fundamentally complex. This essay examines three interrelated characteristics of the cognitive developmental research tradition that contribute to the complexity of this relationship: (a) its tendency to attribute shortcomings in performance to the child’s stage, with the assumption that these shortcomings will disappear with sufficient advancement of cognitive development; (b) the frequent confounding of weak knowledge with developmentally based cognitive deficiencies; and (c) the emphasis of robust stage-based constraints on children’s thinking, to the neglect of variability and change.

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Research suggests that self-control or self-regulation may play a role in the connections among spirituality, health, well-being, and social behavior. Within the framework of social-cognitive developmental theory, we explore the question of how do children and adolescents learn to think of themselves as gendered and spiritual beings within the context of social and self-relationships, and learn to have control over their mental and social worlds? Specifically, we discuss how educational and developmental research has furthered discourse about theory, methodology, and practice in spirituality, self-regulation and sociocognitive development. We argue that preadolescents’ understanding of themselves as gendered, spiritual beings is part of a complex, developmental process that is dynamic and co-constructed within a community of body, mind, and spirit. We conclude the discussion with future research questions to guide developmental and educational research with precise, conceptually sound definitions, respectful and accurate research methods, and meaningful dissemination.

Over the last decade, preschool screening tests aimed at identifying children who will subsequently fail in school have proliferated. Despite their widespread use, these tests have failed at such identification for a large number of children. The present paper argues that the poor predictive validity of many preschool screening tests can be traced to their heavy reliance on a traditional psychometric approach. This approach has produced preschool screening tests that assess only general knowledge the child has been taught. The majority of preschool children who subsequently fail in school do not possess a deficit in general knowledge. Contemporary research in cognitive development has focused on more specific domains and has viewed the child as having a more active role in development. Although the term “active learner” is not new to the learning disabilities field, currently available preschool screening tests have failed to incorporate this perspective. The present investigation demonstrates how tasks derived from basic research investigating active cognitive development in the young child may eventually serve the role of early screening for school failure. Both theory and data are presented to illustrate the efficacy of this approach.

On the Arts of Stillness: For a Pedagogy of Composure

Learning does not take place in a vacuum. Learning takes place in any type of environment, including online. The purpose of this article is neither to solely study active learning for its own sake nor to present an analysis of active online learning. It is rather an attempt to examine the relationship between active learning online and learners’ intellectual growth and development. Towards this end, this article’s background covers active learning and learners’ intellectual growth and development. The next section is devoted to how various learning theories can make active learning occur online; hence, learners’ intellectual growth and development. The last section of the article seeks to make a summary of this article and point out some future directions for active learning online. As modern institutions launch more and more online learning programs, what concerns educators and parents is whether active learning will occur online. Unless active learning occurs online (or growth and development occur online), online learning will lose its true meaning in this knowledge society and information age we currently live in.

Purpose. Interaction of search capabilities of electronic and traditional (card) catalogs. Subject: search capabilities of electronic and traditional (card) catalogs and their interaction. Goal: Creating efficient search system for library information services, updating and improving the information retrieval system. To reach this goal, following tasks are set: – to determine the possibility of parallel functioning of electronic and traditional card catalogs, and to reveal the interaction of their search capabilities by conducting a survey via questionnaire titled «Interaction of search capabilities of electronic and traditional (card) catalogs»; – to find out which search systems are preferred by users; – to estimate the actual condition of search capabilities of electronic and traditional (card) catalogs in the library.Methodology. On various stages of the survey the following methods were used: analysis and synthesis, comparison, generalization, primary sources search; sociological method (survey). These methods allowed determining, processing and ana lyzing the whole complex of available sources, which became an important factor of research objectivity.Finding. Survey results allowed us to analyze the dynamics of changes, new needs of the readers, and to make a decision regarding the quality improvement of information search services.Practical value. Creating a theoretical foundation for implementation of set tasks is the practical value of the acquired findings. Conclusions and results of the research can be used in university students’, postgraduates’ and professors’ information search activities. Certain results of the research are used and implemented in practice of the library of Kryvyi Rih State Pedagogical University, namely at workshops on the basics of information culture (using bibliographic reference unit, information search by key words, authors and titles via electronic catalogue). Guides for users were created. Duty bibliographer’s work on providing information search services for the users was improved.Results. Consequently, the experience of the library of Kryvyi Rih State Pedagogical University’s shows that both electronic and card catalogs may coexist, they complement each other, and facilitate providing quality services for the users, that’s why today the discontinuation of using card catalogs is untimely. Traditional catalogs will be used for a long time. The advantage of using electronic catalogue is availability of quick and efficient information search by any element of bibliographic entry, as well as possibilities for completing various users’ requests. Experience confirms that only in their unity electronic and card catalogs mutually complement each other, facilitating quality bibliographic reference services for the library users. Results of survey via questionnaire allowed to analyze the dynamics of changes in information search activities, new readers’ needs, and to make a decision regarding the quality improvement of information search services.

In the past, management of pain in neonates was regarded as unnecessary, with the belief that neonates have an immature nervous system and do not perceive pain. Later studies confirmed that neonates certainly do feel pain, though they lack the inhibitory mechanisms that modulate excruciating stimuli, unlike in older children. Repeated painful encounters experienced in the newborn period are associated with poor cognitive and motor development by 1 year of age. Pain in preverbal infants and children is also poorly recognized and often undertreated. Neonates and preverbal children cannot verbally communicate their pain and discomfort but express them through specific behavioral, physiological, and biochemical responses. Several pain measurement tools have been developed for young children as surrogate measures of pain. To achieve optimum postoperative or procedural pain relief, easily understandable tools and a multimodal treatment module should be tailor-made for each health-care facility that cares for neonates and young infants. The aim of this advisory is to outline key concepts of pain assessment in neonates and preverbal children and suggest a rational approach to its management by all anesthesiologists, pediatricians, nursing staff, and other medical personnel caring for these children. The Indian Association of Paediatric Anaesthesia (IAPA) convened an online meeting in April 2020 to formulate the advisory on pain management in neonates and preverbal children under the chairmanship of Dr. Elsa Varghese, President IAPA, and members of the guideline committee. After several such meetings and revisions using feedback from IAPA members, the final guidelines were released in October 2020 on the IAPA website. Recommendations: Pain relief should generally be accomplished with a combination of nonpharmacologic approaches and pharmacologic techniques in a stepwise tiered manner by escalating type and dose of analgesia with anticipated increases in procedural pain. Nonpharmacological distraction measures may be sufficient for minor needle procedures like vaccination and venipuncture and may be offered as a first step and to complement other pain management remedies. An interdisciplinary approach involving pharmacologic, cognitive-behavioral, psychologic, and physical treatments should be employed whenever feasible.

Multi-criteria active deep learning for image classification