Abstract
This work reviews the field of screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) modified with “green” metals for electrochemical stripping analysis of toxic elements. Electrochemical stripping analysis has been established as a useful trace analysis technique offering many advantages compared to competing optical techniques. Although mercury has been the preferred electrode material for stripping analysis, the toxicity of mercury and the associated legal requirements in its use and disposal have prompted research towards the development of “green” metals as alternative electrode materials. When combined with the screen-printing technology, such environment-friendly metals can lead to disposable sensors for trace metal analysis with excellent operational characteristics. This review focuses on SPEs modified with Au, Bi, Sb, and Sn for stripping analysis of toxic elements. Different modification approaches (electroplating, bulk modification, use of metal precursors, microengineering techniques) are considered and representative applications are described. A developing related field, namely biosensing based on stripping analysis of metallic nanoprobe labels, is also briefly mentioned.
Highlights
Heavy metals are common, persistent, and non-biodegradable pollutants that tend to accumulate in living organisms [1]
This review has demonstrated that the field of stripping analysis with screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) modified with
The recent requirements associated with green chemistry have been the main driving force underlying the development of these environment-friendly electrode materials
Summary
Persistent, and non-biodegradable pollutants that tend to accumulate in living organisms [1]. The accumulation step is responsible for the high sensitivity of stripping analysis whereas the different potential methods of accumulation of the analyte on the working electrode and the multi-parametric nature of the technique provide versatility, wide applicability, and enhanced selectivity. Regarding the determination of other heavy metals such as Cd, Pb, In, Tl, Cu, and Zn, the invention of the bismuth film electrode (BiFE) in 2000 is a landmark in the research on “green” electrode materials for stripping analysis [15]. A large variety of carbon or modified SPEs is commercially available from different manufacturers (e.g., Dropsens, PalmSens, Pine Research Instrumentation, eDAQ, Metrohm, Micrux Technologies, etc.) The use of such disposable SPEs for stripping analysis presents an attractive alternative to more conventional electrode substrates [1,26,27,28,29]. Different modification approaches (electroplating, bulk modification, use of metal precursors, microengineering methods) will be considered and representative applications will be described
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