Satellite-based modeling of mangrove forest degradation in the coastal waters of Bintan Island, Indonesia

The purpose of this article is Artificial Neural Network (ANN) modeling using ecological and associated factors with forest degradation to predict the degradation of ecosystem, thereby enabling us to assess the environmental impacts of forest projects as an Environmental Decision Support System (EDSS). Results of the Multi-Layer Feed-Forward Network (MLFN), trained for Optimized Forest Degradation Model (OFDM), indicate that the performance of OFDM is more than other degradation models. Changes in forest management activities with higher value in sensitivity analysis help forest managers to decrease OFDM entity and environment impacts. The system is an intelligent EDSS, which allows the decision-maker to model criteria in forest degradation in order to reach and employ the optimal allocation plan. Considering results, multi criteria decision analysis (MCDA) approaches based on ANN, is an encouraging and robust method for solving MCDA problems.

Factors involved in the degradation of mangrove forests in Iran: A mixed study for the management of this ecosystem

Bio-economic modeling of land use and forest degradation at watershed level in Nepal

Degradation of forest roads in Canada has strong negative effects on access to forestlands, together with economic (e.g., increased maintenance costs), environmental (e.g., erosion of materials and subsequent habitat contamination), and social (e.g., use risks) impacts. Maintaining sustainable and safe access to forestland requires a better understanding and knowledge of forest road degradation over time and space. Our study aimed to identify relevant spatiotemporal variables regarding the state of eastern Canadian forest road networks by (1) building predictive models of gravel forest road degradation and assessing effects of the slope, time, loss of the road surface, and road width (field approach), and (2) evaluating the potential of topography, roughness and vegetation indices obtained from Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) data and Sentinel-2 optical images to estimate degradation rates (remote sensing approach). The field approach (n = 207 sample plots) confirmed that only four variables were efficient to estimate degradation rates (pseudo-R2 = 0.43 with ±8% error). Simulations that were conducted showed that after about five years without maintenance, the rate of degradation on a road, regardless of its width, increased exponentially, exacerbated by a high slope gradient and loss of road surface. The narrowest roads tended to degrade more rapidly over time. The remote sensing approach performed quite well (pseudo-R2 = 0.34 with ±9% error) in terms of predicting road degradation, giving us the valuable tools to spatialise the state of gravel forest road degradation in eastern Canadian forest. This study provided new knowledge and tools that are critical for maintaining and sustaining access to Canada’s boreal forest territory in both the short- and the long-term.

Mangrove forests in Angke Kapuk, North Jakarta, are integral parts of the coastal ecosystem and play important roles in supporting environmental sustainability. One component of the Angke Kapuk Mangrove Forest is the Mangrove Nature Tourism Park (MNTP), Angke Kapuk, covering an area of 99.82 hectares. This study aims to analyze mangrove forest degradation in Angke Kapuk Nature Reserve using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI, which allows for mapping mangrove vegetation density and monitoring changes in the vegetation density over time. The objective of this study is to determine the degradation of mangrove forests from 2018 to 2023 using the NDVI derived from Landsat 8 and Landsat 9 satellite imagery. The findings of this study showed a change of 13.16 hectares in forested areas between 2018 and 2023, suggesting forest degradation. Accuracy assessment resulted in %80 overall accuracy with a kappa coefficient of % 76.2. Based on the literature, our results are similar to the acceptable level of accuracy, which is considered to be above %80. Monitoring mangrove forest areas can serve as a preventive measure to address the issue of mangrove forest degradation. These results underscore the necessity of sustainable forestry monitoring efforts in the MNTP area, as it contributes significantly to providing ecosystem services and maintaining environmental sustainability.

Tropical forest change includes a variety of negative and positive changes in the distribution and content of tropical forests caused by human and natural factors. The initial focus of study was on tropical deforestation, which merely consists of a reduction in forest area. This has since been complemented by the study of forest degradation, which involves a reduction in the quality of forests, as represented by a decline in their carbon density, biodiversity, tree density or other features, e.g., by selective logging. They are defined by FAO 1982 (cited under Monitoring with National Statistics) as “a complete clearing of tree formations. and their replacement by other use of the land,” and “less radical alterations of tree populations,” respectively. Their complementary roles are recognized by the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) mechanism of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. However, since the monitoring and modeling of forest degradation has not received the same depth of study as deforestation so far, it is not discussed in detail here. Increasing attention is now being paid to the expansion of tropical forests, or forestation. This takes the form of intentional tree planting on bare land (afforestation), and the regeneration of existing forests, through both natural and human assisted means (reforestation). Tropical forests encompass a wide range of different forest types in the tropics, a zone situated between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn (latitudes 23 degrees N and 23 degrees S, respectively) which consists of both the humid tropics, a band centerd on the Equator, and drier and more seasonal regions at higher latitudes. Tropical moist forests, found in the humid tropics, cover about 1,100 million hectares (ha) and have traditionally received most attention in monitoring and modeling studies, because they are the easiest to survey. Tropical dry forests, on the other hand, have been poorly studied, even though they may account for 40 percent of all tropical forest area. Tropical forests are of global importance because they cover about 1,800 million hectares (ha), or about 45 percent of all forests in the world, and contain about half of all plant species in the world and of all carbon stored in vegetation. There is still great uncertainty about the area of tropical forest and how rapidly it is changing. It is not the aim of this review to critically evaluate different estimates or give reasons for this uncertainty—references are provided below to direct readers to suitable sources on this. The aim instead is to provide an overview of the many decades of scholarship in this field, and to show how this has led to the accumulation of knowledge on changes in three of the most important attributes of tropical forest: area, carbon, and biodiversity.

The response of mangrove ecosystems to the Asian monsoon in the future global warming can be understood by reconstructing the development of mangrove forests during the Holocene climatic optimum (HCO), using proxies preserved in coastal sediments. The total organic matter in sediments of a segmented core, with calibrated age ranges between 5.6 and 7.7 cal. ka BP and corresponding to the HCO, from the Qinzhou Bay in Guangxi, China, is quantitatively partitioned into three end-members according to their sources: mangrove-derived, terrigenous, and marine phytoplanktonic, using a three-end-member model depicted by organic carbon isotope (δ 13Corg) and the molar ratio of total organic carbon to total nitrogen (C/N). The percentage of mangrove-derived organic matter (MOM) contribution is used as a proxy for mangrove development. Three visible drops in MOM contribution occurred at ca. 7.3, ca. 6.9, and ca. 6.2 cal. ka BP, respectively, are recognized against a relatively stable and higher MOM contribution level, indicating that three distinct mangrove forest degradations occurred in the Qinzhou Bay during the HCO. The three mangrove forest degradations approximately correspond to the time of the strengthened/weakened Asian winter/summer monsoon. This indicates that even during a period favorable for the mangrove development, such as the HCO, climatic extremes, such as cold and dry events driven by the strengthened/weakened Asian winter/summer monsoon, can trigger the degradation of mangrove forests.

Chapter 5 - An appraisal of forest degradation and future scenario in the Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh state (India)

Abstract. Rinaldy H, Iskandar J, Cahyandito MF, Sunardi. 2023. The potential feasibility of mangrove crab (Scylla serrata) silvofishery aquaculture. Biodiversitas 24: 3344-3354. The degradation of mangrove forests in Indonesia has reached more than 50%, and increases continuously. Sei Beduk is one of the Sub-districts in Batam City, Indonesia, that has mangrove forest damage where the density of trees per hectare is below the normal value of <1,000 trees per hectare. One approach that can be applied to overcome forest degradation is fisheries management with an ecosystem approach. This study aims to determine the suitable location for cultivating mangrove crab (Scylla serrata Forskål, 1775) and analyze the potential feasibility of S. serrata silvofishery cultivation using a quantitative approach with the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management (EAFM) method. According to Slovin's calculations, a minimum of 100 people samples were obtained, and 147 samples were obtained at the time of data collection. The results showed that the location of the Perahu was highly potential for silvofishery S. serrata cultivation. The overall potential feasibility of silvofishery S. serrata cultivation in Sei Beduk, Batam was 53.10% or moderate/relatively good. The potential feasibility of S. serrata cultivation management planning is sufficient to support the sustainability of mangrove forests and allow it to be implemented. The feasible plan for managing S. serrata cultivation is to preserve ecology while improving and considering aquaculture policies and regulations. The relatively appropriate mangrove silvofishery cultivation in Sei Beduk, Batam, can provide community solutions to carry out silvofishery cultivation as a measure to overcome the problem of mangrove forest degradation, particularly in Sei Beduk, Batam.

This study aims to determine restoration and revitalization efforts after the degradation of mangrove ecosystems in Paluh Merbau. The observation method is direct observation of the mangrove area. The results show that the mangrove ecosystem is fragile and sensitive to change. Mangrove forest degradation in Paluh Merbau has been very severe; much mangrove vegetation has fallen due to being unable to withstand abrasion and sedimentation in coastal waters and continues to experience area shrinkage. Restoration and revitalization of the Paluh Merbau mangrove ecosystem were carried out by naming Rhizapora apiculata, Rhizapora stylosa, and Avicennia marina.

Mangrove forest or better known as mangrove forest is an ecosystem found in coastal waters and has an important ecological and economic role. This study aims to measure and determine the health status of mangrove forests that grow in the waters of Berakit, Bintan based on the level of tree density. The study was conducted in August to November 2019 which was conducted at twenty station points spread from the mainland to the coastal waters of Berakit. Field data collection was performed using the quadratic transect line method, 10x10 m2 plot was made along the transect line to measure the diameter of the tree at breast height (DBH) which has a trunk circumference for each mangrove tree at breast height of about 1.3 m. Mangrove health status based on the level of density of mangrove trees is included in the criteria of Good with Very Solid category. Rhizophora apiculata is a species of mangrove that grows well and has an important role in the waters of Berakit, Bintan island.

Natural disasters that occur in the city of Dumai such as degradation of mangrove forests, coastal abrasion and tidal flooding can be mitigated by maintaining the existence of mangrove forests. Mangrove forests have important benefits on the coast of the city of Dumai, so they need to be protected together. One of the efforts to maintain the existence of mangroves can be through the use of mitigation-based mangrove ecotourism, especially in the Bandar Bakau area of Dumai City. The data collection technique in this study used a quadratic transect and added secondary data from the relevant agencies. Based on the results of the study found 9 types of mangroves that have a role as mitigation in ecotourism locations and there are biota supporting tourism, namely 13 species of birds, 7 species of reptiles and 16 species of molluscs. To maintain the sustainability of the ecotourism area of Bandar Bakau, several disaster mitigations have been carried out for retaining cliffs (revetment), reforestation of mangroves, construction of facilities that adapt to the environment, coastal education, and outreach to the community. In addition, it is very potential to develop several other forms of mitigation such as: beach nourishment, breakwater or construction of embankments to minimize abrasion, as well as construction of diversion canals and tidal flood control gates, strengthening regulations. legislation, making land use policies, policies on flood and wave resistant building standards, policies on exploration and community economic activities, promoting local cultural wisdom of maritime communities.

Issue on mangrove degradation and its impact viewed from ecological and anthropological aspects is constantly actual as it will reduce its vital function as a coastal protection from the danger of tsunami and abrasion, nutrient recycling, fisheries productivity biodiversity, dampening the rate of sea water intrusion and other coastal ecosystem crutches. This study aims to: determine the level of mangrove degradation; find out a model of mangrove area reduction dynamics due to the influence of ecological and anthropogenical factors including a model of perceptional correlation, to know community’s perceptions and participation on mangrove degradation; then to further discover more effective strategies in dealing with coastal mangrove degradation in Brebes Regency coastal areas. In the research areas, three species of mangrove vegetation were discovered in proper number; they were Rhizophora mucronata, Rhizophora apiculata and Avicennia marina. Overall, Rhizophora mucronata had the highest density of 35.731 ind./ha. in Kaliwlingi Village, Sub District of Brebes. Mangrove areas in Brebes Regency generally decreased with the reduction rate of 68,46 ha./year. Ecological and anthropogenical factors had the cohesion of the dynamics of a vast reduction in mangrove Brebes coastal areas. The value of natural growth factor (99,60%), reforestation (97,40%), death (99,60%), logging (99,60%), and abrasion (99,60%). Most of the indicators of independent factors, perception and public participation factors showed a significant effect (valid) against the dependent factor (mangrove degradation) at 95% and 90% level of convidence, but the influence of ecological factors were more dominant than anthropogenical factor. The level of public perception had no effect on the level of participation. The results showed that degradation of mangrove forests in Brebes Regency coastal areas were still allowed to be maintained and could be developed. The order of strategies to manage mangrove degradation in Brebes Regency coastal areas were: (1) Improving the protection of the mangrove areas from ocean waves/abrasion through anchoring/ more effective breakwater; (2) Increasing the empowerment of potential mangrove areas through productive activities that increase the added value for improving the welfare of local communities while preserving the mangrove; (3) Making the implementation of regulations and optimizing the role of relevant agencies, civil society organizations, and the participation of local communities in conserving mangrove areas and developing it; (4) Strengthening the institutional system of government and public institutions in the management of mangrove areas for short, medium and long term; and (5) Improving outreach activities/community related to the importance of mangroves for coastal resource conservation.

Morphological changes on Sagar Island are occurring at an alarming rate due to both natural and anthropogenic activities. The eastern part of the island is rapidly eroding due to destabilization and growth of tidal flats in the Muriganga estuary and the gradual shifting of water current towards the island. Over the last four years (1996–1999), the rate of coastal erosion has been much higher (11.35 km2) than accretion (2.65 km2), compared with the conditions prior to 1996. Coastal places like Dublat, Basantpur, Gobindapur, Collectorganj, and Sumatinagar have become the critical zones of erosion. The shorelines along the eastern and south‐western sides are receding. The extent of coverage of the paddy field, sandy beaches, and land vegetation has decreased from 1996 to 1999 by 15.7, 1.1, and 3.5 km2, respectively. An integrated database of the island was generated using spatial and non‐spatial data collected through field survey, satellite images of IRS‐1C LISS III, and topomaps. Spatial data include coastal geomorphological landforms, land‐use and land cover, shoreline change, sandy beaches, coastal erosion sites, agricultural fields, aquaculture sites, and coastal riparian vegetations. Non‐spatial data include the demography and evolution of the island. The main critical environmental issues of the island are: (1) degradation of mangrove forests and coastal erosion; (2) overpopulation and over‐exploitation of living resources; and (3) destruction of seawalls. Further degradation may lead to extinction of a variety of species and scarcity of marine food unless properly managed and regulated.

Mangrove ecosystems provide important functions for ecosystem service. However, the degradation of mangrove forests, especially conversion to aquaculture ponds is a driver for deforestation. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the mangrove vegetation and duration of inundation in ponds before and after rehabilitation activities were conducted on abandoned ponds. In this analysis, we used the census method to collect structural data, the Important Value Index (IVI), composition and structure, and the diversity index. To determine the duration of inundation at the observation sites in a pond in Tanjung Rejo, Percut Sei Tuan village, we deployed one water logger and two Mini Buoys at ponds. At the observation site, eight pure mangrove species have been founded, namely Avicennia alba, A. marina, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Excoecaria agallocha, Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, R. stylosa, and Nypa fruticans. The main species was A. marina which is a total of 756 idv/ha at the seedling stage 52.81 idv/ha at the sapling stage, and 268.09 idv/ha at the tree level. The highest IVI has founded in seedlings, saplings, and trees at A. marina, which was 99.30%. 80.41% and 94.49%, respectively. Rehabilitated Avicennia spp that grew only 2.4% from 2000 seedlings. The low growth of seedlings was influenced by the pond condition which was always in a state of flooding. The current study provides important information that in carrying out planting or rehabilitation activities it is necessary to determine which inundation rotation should be a priority considered.