Sanitary Policy of the Russian Authorities in the Bay of Kotor (1806–1807)

The purpose of the study is to analyze the relationships of the Romanian popula- tion of Bukovyna with the Austrian and Russian authorities during World War I. Th e method- ology of the study is based on the principles of historicism, objectivity, systematic approach and the use of methods of analysis and synthesis, as well as problematic and chronological, historical and typological, historical and systematic ones. Th e scientifi c novelty is defi ned by the fact that the situation of the Romanian population of Bukovyna during World War I and the measures taken by the Austrian and Russian authorities to control the population have been comprehen- sively analyzed for the fi rst time in Ukrainian historiography. Bukovyna became a part of the combat zone from the beginning of the Great war, and its population was forced to face a new attitude of the Austrian authorities, who considered it necessary to eliminate any manifestations of Russophilia, both among Ukrainians and Romanians. Since the Russian authorities intended to achieve the appropriate attitude towards the Romanian population of Bukovyna in order of Romania entering the war, the Austrian authorities made some steps to restrict the freedom of teachers and priests as mentors of the peasants. Despite the belief in the existence of irredenta among the Romanians, the Austrian authorities tried to attract Romanians to participate in volunteer armed forces during defensive battles in Bukovyna. Accusations of treason oft en resulted in the dismissal of the accused, but such cases occurred mainly at the end of the war and oft en concerned representatives of the upper world, as was the case with Yanku Flondor. The imbalance of the Austrian authorities’ attitude towards the Romanians caused some animosity towards them among the latter. Conclusion. The Romanian population of Bukovyna became the element by infl uencing which the Russian occupation authorities intended to trigger the break-up of Austria-Hungary during World War I. The loyalty of the Russian authorities to the Romanian population should have helped to convince the country’s authorities of the need to join the Entente countries. However, the authorities had not always been able to fi nd the right solutions to social issues, which had kept the latter ones in the background. Aft er all, the Russian authorities failed to avoid the pogroms of Romanian farms, which did not prevent the Russian side from Romania entering the war on the Entente side.

The paper discusses the activities of Mirislav Zanović, the leader of the pro-French political faction in the Bay of Kotor at the end of the 18th and the first years of the 19th century. This research indicates that the first reliable data on his pro-French orientation date back to the end of 1793. At that time, the general providor of Dalmatia, Alvize Marin, was warned about individuals in Boka, who were suspected of feeling sympathy towards the Revolution and its ideas. In October 1795, Mirislav tried to launch a rebellion, motivated by the ideas of brotherhood and freedom. This revolt was aimed at liberating certain areas on the border from Ottoman servitude. It was quelled, while Mirislav was kept in prison for some time, in Venice. He was released after the French conquered the city and sent to Budva to propagate the ideas of the Revolution and work to win over the local population.
 The paper also discusses its position during the first Austrian (1797–1805), Russian (1806–1807) and French (1807–1813) rule in Boka. Although the Austrian authorities harbored suspicion of Mirislav, he managed to survive thanks to the influence of his father, Count Antun Zanović, who was appointed manager of Budva. Mirislav found himself in the most difficult position during the Russian rule, when he spent some time in prison. He reached the peak of his rise in the political life of Boka during the French rule, when he was appointed to certain administrative positions in Budva. After France lost all illusions about the possibility of the survival of its government in Boka, Mirislav, thanks to good relations with Bishop Petar I Petrović-Njegoš, changed sides in 1813, denying any support to France. In the years that followed, Mirislav was relegated to the background. He spent a short time in prison in Dubrovnik, after which he was released, but was placed under surveillance by the Austrian authorities for the rest of his life.

Tenancy tax, payable to municipal communes was imposed in 1921, initially in the areas formerly administered by Russian and Austrian authorities. From 1923 regulations on municipal tenancy tax were also in force in the former Prussian territory. In 1925, besides the municipal tenancy tax, the authorities instituted the national tenancy tax (benefitting the National Fund for Urban Expansion) as well as the housing tax contributing to the Military Housing Fund. As a result, in accordance with these rules, the same places and the same individuals were subject to three taxes (whose total value was up to 15% of the rent). The situation changed in 1926, when one tenancy tax was introduced; the relevant proceeds were designated for municipal communes, the National Fund for Urban Expansion and the Military Housing Fund. This change resulted in decreased obligatory charges.

This article discusses the colonial policies around public health, sanitary measures and control of venereal diseases in the Madras Presidency in the 1860s and 1870s, and describes how these policies shaped urban development of Madras. It investigates how British colonial measures to curtail venereal diseases concurred with concerns about ‘public health’ in the 1860s and 1870s in the Madras Presidency and the city of Madras. It questions the extent to which British ‘public health’ policies encompassed the Indian population. Although there is a recent increase in scholarly interest in studying the medical and sanitary history of the Madras Presidency, very few historians have focused on the ways in which colonial morality influenced town-planning and sanitary policies in the area. Earlier, scholars believed that segregation was key to maintaining public health in colonial cities; however, recent scholarship has questioned the notions of ‘dual city’ by highlighting the blurred lines. This article also investigates how far the colonial administration successfully segregated the European population from the Indian population and the Indian labouring and service-providing poor from the non-labouring poor.

The article analyzes generalized visions of the Jewish population that existed during 1914–1917 in the surrounding of Russian administration and among the general population of the temporarily occupied territories of Russian empire and of its western provinces. The source base of the study is presented by documents of the gendarme agency from the collections of the Central State Historical Archive of Ukraine (Kyiv). They reveal the political mood of the population, rumors and statements that potentially can destabilize the situation in the region. The sources give the following generalized characteristics of the Jewish population: 1. Jews avoid military service and public works; 2. Jews massively sympathize to the enemy and gladly perceive his victories and defeats of the Russian army; 3. Jews spy in favor of Austria-Hungary; 4. During the war, the Jewish population significantly increased its wealth by raising prices for essential goods; 5. Jews gain excessive wealth in the game of exchange rates; 6. Jews in Galicia directly agitate for the return of the Austrian authorities; 7. Jews represent a community that is unsafe to provide civil rights, because it will automatically strike in the interests of the rest of the population; 8. Jews are often robbed during the war, but they deserve it; 9. The Jewish community is characterized by a special rejection of Nicholas II’s personal and royal family; 10. Jews massively spread anti-Russian rumors. The author concludes that most of the characteristics of the Jewish population reflect the attitude towards it as a “domestic enemy”. The Russian authorities, both in the front-line provinces and territories temporarily occupied during the war, actively contributed to the formation of such a negative image. This fully fitted into the policy of the tsarist government, which can be characterized as state anti-Semitism. Later, such actions were partly due to the pogromous activity of the local population against the Jews in the revolutionary purges of 1917-1921.

The article describes the influence of economic factors on the formation of Austrian policy in the field of urban development in Galicia (second half of the 18th century). It is noted that the Austrian authorities paid considerable attention to urban planning activities in the annexed Ukrainian lands, as they considered the cities as potential industrial centers of the country (following the Prussian or British model). However, at the beginning of the establishment of its power in Galicia, some problems arose. The Austrian authorities considered the formation of city estimates to be one of the issues, because there was not enough money either for sanitation measures (for example, cleaning cities from garbage), or even more so for larger construction projects. Military expenditures limited the support and stimulation of urban development. It was not even possible to protect the city from floods with municipal funds (Halych, Zhydachiv). At that time, city revenues were formed thanks to: 1) propination; 2) lease of municipal land; 3) equity capital; 4) market and bridge fees, etc. Special attention of the Austrian authorities was drawn to the issue of propination rights in royal cities. Official Vienna was inclined to restore this right not only in private, but also in royal cities. The fact that individual elders usurped the right of propination was considered a violation due to illegal ordinances and throughout the first half of the 19th century, so the government normalized this issue. When the representatives of the county authorities were required to document the existence of the right of propination, it often turned out that they did not have any confirmation. The cities of Sambir, Drohobych, and Stryi started lawsuits with the treasury and the elders for the return of the propination right and won. In the vision of Austrian officials, the city's breweries and distilleries were to significantly replenish the budget. Emperor Joseph II was much more moderate in this regard, believing that depriving small owners of the right to propinate would negatively affect the state of the treasury. It is established that reforming the city administration was not in the first place, as other political and social issues that needed attention were urgent. The realities of the local context are also taken into account. Architecture and urban planning did not play a decisive role in the new government's agenda. At the first stage of their influence on urban relations, the Austrian authorities tried to implement a policy of special instructions and warnings. In order to encourage the population to build new houses or repair dilapidated ones, on November 19, 1774, the Austrian government announced a ten-year exemption from taxes on new or rebuilt houses, which had a positive effect on urban development, particularly in Galicia. Keywords: state policy, urban development activity, urban planning, Austrian Empire, Galicia.

The role of veterinary epidemiology and veterinary services in complying with the World Trade Organization SPS agreement

Aim This study aimed to investigate the associations between health behavior adherence and psychological factors during the COVID-19 pandemic, with a particular focus on identifying trajectories of handwashing, mask wearing, social contact limitations, and physical distancing. Methods We employed a multi-trajectory group-based approach to analyze data from 6026 Belgian residents, including 60% women, with an average age of 52.65. Data were collected over six waves spanning from April 2021 to December 2021. Results Participants were categorized into trajectory groups based on persistently low (11.9%), moderate-low (20.9%), moderate-high (39.1%), and high (28.1%) levels of adherence to the specified health behaviors. Our findings indicate a declining trend in health behavior adherence over the study period. Additionally, we observed that females, older individuals, and those with prior COVID-19 infection had a higher likelihood of belonging to trajectory groups characterized by the highest levels of health behavior adherence. Similarly, individuals with positive vaccination intentions, a heightened perception of consequences, and increased health anxiety demonstrated greater adherence to health behaviors over time. Furthermore, our investigation into the relationship between health behaviors and mental health revealed that participants in trajectory groups with higher levels of adherence to social contact limitations and physical distancing reported increased feelings of loneliness and decreased life satisfaction. Conclusions The COVID-19 pandemic has reshaped our lives, and while vaccines have marked progress, maintaining health behaviors is crucial for virus prevention. To address potential mental health challenges from sanitary measures, policies and communication should promote health behaviors while acknowledging their psychological impact.

The author has studied the current state of the regulatory base on the prevention of the occurrence and spread of the COVID-19coronavirus disease in Ukraine and the practice of its application by authorized entities for the implementation of state policy in the field of health care and the protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens.
 The system of public administration in the field of ensuring the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population has been analyzed. The features of the distribution of powers of state agencies in this area after the liquidation of the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Service of Ukraine have been researched.
 The author concludes that the existing system of state agencies that carry out sanitary and epidemiological control in Ukraine requires further improvement by adopting a decree of the Government of Ukraine on the functioning of the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Service. The author of the article has also identified gaps in the current legislation of Ukraine on administrative offenses, which regulates the procedure for holding accountable for violation of sanitary and anti-epidemic rules. These shortcomings primarily relate to the content of the Code of Ukraine on Administrative Offenses, which contains the names of non-existent state agencies or their officials, the provisions of repealed laws or other by-laws.
 Based on the analysis of the laws of Ukraine and government decrees on the implementation of sanitary and anti-epidemiological measures, the author has formulated propositions aimed at regulating the legal status of the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Service; improvement of administrative proceedings in the field of health care and violation of quarantine rules; amending the list of agencies and officials authorized to consider cases of administrative offenses for the violation of sanitary rules; optimization of the mechanism of prosecution for failure to comply with legal orders of entities implementing the state sanitary and anti-epidemiological policy; expanding the list of powers of the National Police for the implementation of administrative detention, verification of documents and police custody within the sequestration.

This article proposes to explain the reasons why, in Puerto Rico, in the last quarter of the 19th century, the state abandoned the sanitary policies which forced the isolation (quarantine) of lepers. Among the reasons for abandoning this policy was the change in medical representation that the disease experienced. The notion that leprosy was contagious was long-standing, which resulted in sanitary measures centered around isolating the affected. This was the case for centuries, until the middle of the 19th century when a new explanation was promulgated, which understood leprosy as a hereditary disease. As a result, forced quarantine was no longer seen as fulfilling any prophylactic/preventative function. At the end of the 1800s it was thought that the commingling of those infected with leprosy alongside the uninfected population did not represent any health risk. Sanitary policy was directed toward removing the indigent victims of leprosy from the city, until 1889 when a barracks was built which functioned as a shelter, not a hospital. This notion of leprosy as a hereditary problem disappeared with the US invasion of 1898.

Health and Welfare in St. Petersburg, 1900-1941 is the first monograph to chart the changing health situation in the former capital of the Russian Empire during the first half of the twentieth century. It tells the story of how the Russian, then Soviet, government and public health authorities tried to cope with supplying the population of St. Petersburg with clean water, fresh air, pure food and all the other bare necessities against the backdrop of a crumbling Empire and the rise of a new socialist regime. It explores how these changes were closely connected with social inequality and social and political conflict as the new Soviet state struggled to cope with epidemics and disease whilst fighting for its very existence. It also explores how the new Soviet, and later the Stalinist regime, conceived of health and welfare. Cutting across a variety of disciplines, this book approaches the history of medicine and disease via a case study of St. Petersburg. Taking advantage of declassified and newly accessible Russian archives, it is informed by recent trends in social, economic and political history and offers a major insight into health conditions, health care and relations between the medical profession, state and society in modern Russia.

Subjective occupational well-being, as shown by the authors of this article, is one of the key conditions for occupational health and career longevity in our time. Along with this, existing models associate the achievement of occupational well-being with the realisation of aspirations for personal self-development and autonomy subject to professional competence and favourable emotional and psychosomatic states prevailing in a comfortable working environment. However, these models do not take into account the social and occupational relevance of actors as a factor in their occupational well-being, although any professional occupation is initially aimed at obtaining the results required by society. Any activity, the results of which do not meet the expectations and requirements of society, become unclaimed, the demand for its participants is lost, and the problem of their subjective occupational wellbeing becomes irrelevant. Therefore, it would be incorrect to consider the assessment of personal occupational well-being without correlating it with the assessment of personal social and occupational relevance. As shown in the article, human well-being should also be considered in ethnocultural terms. In this regard, the aim of the present study was to provide a theoretical and empirical justification for the construct of subjective occupational well-being, including the component of social-occupational relevance, using a Russian sample. To verify this point, we conducted an empirical study that involved 285 employees of Russian territorial tax authorities. Their employment records in the tax service ranged from 1 to 34 years, with less than three years in 18% of the sample. Their age range was 22-62 years, with 25% of the sample on the right side of thirty. The sample included 70% of women and 30% of men. The study used The Professional Demand Questionnaire (Kharitonova, 2014), The Occupational Well-Being Inventory (Rut, 2016), The Prevalent Positive Emotional State Questionnaire (Kulikov, 2003), and the single-scale questionnaires - The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-17) and Dutch Boredom Scale (DUBS) in Russian adaptation (Schaufeli, Diystra, Ivanova, 2015). The research methods included factor analysis (principal component analysis, varimax rotation) and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results of the factor analysis showed that the newly proposed construct of subjective occupational well-being included three independent but, at the same time, interrelated components. The first component (27% of the variance explained) contained a set of self-esteems of the employees that reflected their awareness of their social and occupational relevance (I, as a competent and sought-after professional). The second component (19%) contained self-esteems that reflected the sustainable dominance of positive emotional states among the employees. And the third component (14%) contained self-esteems that reflected the degree to which the employees realised their aspirations for professional growth, satisfaction with their professional achievements and relationships in the work team. Two areas of further research on the problem of subjective occupational wellbeing are considered relevant. One area is the further elaboration of the ideas of the resource approach for developing and maintaining employees subjective occupational well-being (Schaufeli, Bakker, Van Rhenen, 2009). The other area is research in the framework of cross-cultural and cross-occupational approaches (Brauchli et al., 2013).

Introduction: COVID-19, a respiratory disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on March 11, 2020. It has affected millions of people and represents an unprecedented threat not only to health, but also to the economy and educational processes. In the confinement, one of the vulnerable groups is that of students of various academic degrees. The objective was to describe the manifestations of psychological discomfort and health derived from the confinement measures in students of a private university in the state of Guanajuato, Mexico. A secondary objective, due to the inclusion criteria, was to evaluate the differences between undergraduate and graduate students, as well as the associated factors in social coexistence, vulnerable groups and health measures. Method: The participants were 641 students who were administered an online survey with a response rate of 77.6%. The participants were 63.1% women and 36.9% men. A total of 60.8% were undergraduate students and 39.2% graduate students. The mean age was 25.3 years. The instrument of measurement consists of 24 items, integrating Kessler's K-6 scale, with 6 specific questions on psychological distress referring to symptoms of anxiety and depression in the last month. Four questions on health aspects regarding COVID-19, 8 on healthy distance measures, and 6 on coexistence and habits at home were included. An odds ratio analysis was performed to identify the associated risk of health and coexistence with respect to psychological distress. At each stage, the ethical principles for the research were complied with and the dignity of the participants was respected, as well as the lawful treatment of personal information based on the principles of the current regulatory framework. Results: The 92.6% lived in confinement with family, and the remainder alone or with friends. The 96.2% indicated not having symptoms of COVID. The 44.7% did not have a daily routine, 27.4% went out daily in confinement and 48.3% presented moderate to high and very high levels of psychological distress. A higher risk of presenting psychological distress was identified in women, postgraduate students, belonging to the health and humanities areas, presenting obesity and concern about being infected, not following sanitary measures and presenting any physical discomfort (ORs ranging from 2.05 to 7.02). Discussion and conclusion: As in other populations, the monitoring of confinement measures is not uniform and there is a high proportion of psychological distress in undergraduate and graduate students. It is suggested to serve the population with higher risk with a comprehensive care model that incorporates the educational process, social coexistence and emotional management.

<p>W czasie I wojny światowej, w lipcu 1915 r. po ewakuacji władz rosyjskich, w Zamościu i jego okolicach z inicjatywy miejscowych prawników powstało sądownictwo obywatelskie. Funkcjonowało krótko, zostało rozwiązane przez austriackie władze okupacyjne. Utrzymano jednak sądy najniższej instancji, wiążąc je instancyjnie z organami administracji okupacyjnej i sądami wojskowymi. W Zamościu funkcjonował sąd pokoju i wojskowy sąd obwodowy (powiatowy). Po wydaniu przez władców Niemiec i Austro-Węgier aktu 5 listopada z 1916 r. zgodnie z zawartą w nim zapowiedzią przystąpiono do prac mających na celu przekazanie w polskie ręce wymiaru sprawiedliwości na okupowanych terenach Królestwa Polskiego. W dniu 1 września 1917 r. otwarto sądy królewsko-polskie, a wśród nich sąd pokoju w Zamościu. W wyniku inicjatywy władz miejskich Zamościa i lokalnych organizacji społecznych Rada Regencyjna Królestwa Polskiego podjęła decyzję o utworzeniu królewsko-polskiego Sądu Okręgowego w Zamościu. Został on uroczyście otwarty w dniu 1 czerwca 1918 r., a jego prezesem mianowano dotychczasowego zamojskiego sędziego pokoju Romualda Jaśkiewicza. W skład sądu weszło czterech sędziów okręgowych, czterech sędziów śledczych, a także prokurator okręgowy i trzech podprokuratorów. Stanowiska te objęli adwokaci, prawnicy pochodzący z Galicji oraz polscy prawnicy powracający z ogarniętej wojną domową Rosji. Niższe stanowiska (np. sędziów śledczych) obsadzane były również przez pierwszych aplikantów sądowych. W latach 1918–1919 można zaobserwować spory ruch kadrowy na tych stanowiskach. Okręg zamojski obejmował cztery powiaty: zamojski, biłgorajski, hrubieszowski i tomaszowski, z działającymi na ich obszarze 19 sądami pokoju. Wśród nich były dwa sądy pokoju w Zamościu, obejmujące tzw. okręg miejski i okręg wiejski. Na ich czele stali Zygmunt Kostkiewicz i Adam Sajkiewicz. W listopadzie 1918 r. sądy zamojskie zaczęły wydawać wyroki „w imieniu Republiki Polskiej”, a niedługo potem ich siedzibą stał się wyremontowany dla tych celów pałac Zamoyskich.</p>

The paper is devoted to the problems of development of foreign trade ties between the Russian Empire and neighboring countries of the Middle East and Central Asia during periods of epidemics, epizootics and epiphytoties throughout the 19th century. Special attention is paid to the evolution of the sanitary and quarantine policy of the state, the measures of government agencies to check the spread of contagious diseases in highly endemic regions. The author shows how the emergence and spread of infectious diseases affected the dynamics of foreign trade operations, changes in distribution channels and supply of goods, pricing policy, assortment of goods, shortages, the state of fair and retail trade in the empire. Special consideration is given to the protective measures of the Russian authorities in border zones, in ports, centers of transit trade. The territorial framework of the study embraces the countries bordering Russia in the east - Turkey, Iran, the Central Asia Khanates, Afghanistan, as well as the territory of the Russian Empire itself. The paper analyzes the measures of state and legal regulation of foreign and domestic trade underconditions of epidemics and epizootics. The preventive measures of the authorities in border areasto stop the spread of infectious diseases deep into the territory of the empire, along with goods, merchants, animals, and plants. The importance of the topic is determined by the similarity of problems in the foreign trade of contemporary Russia in connection with the pandemic of COVID-19, the disruption of foreign trade ties with near and far-abroad countries and the need to use historical experience in view of an immediate change in foreign trade strategy. The paper is based on rare archival documents and rarely used pre-revolutionary domestic and foreign sources. In the course of the study, the author came to the conclusion that a clear and fairly effective system for preventing the spread of infectious diseases was formed in the Russian Empire throughout the 19th century, a system was developed to respond to the interruption of the influxof goods and their sale under conditions of epidemics, epizootics and epiphytoties, to search for alternative channels for supplying the necessary goods to prevent shortages, price increases, production shutdowns, etc.