Russian language in the education system of Turkestan in the late 19th – early 20th centuries

The problem of homogeneity and integrity of the Russian Empire state territories became topical in the se-cond half of the 19th century. Its resolution was reflected in the administrative and legal integration, based on the policy of Russification and introduction of the Russian language in all spheres of life of the society. The purpose of this article is to reconstruct the mechanisms and particularities of the implementation of this policy in the Central Asian outskirts of the Russian Empire — the Governor-Generalship of the Steppes. The study is based on a wide range of hsitorical sources — regulations and paperwork, most of which have been identified in archives and in-troduced into the scientific discourse for first time. It has been revealed that the implementation of the Russifica-tion policy in the Steppe Territory followed two directions. The first one involved the introduction of paperwork management in Russian language into the local governments system. This process iniciated very actively in the beginning of the 20th century after the settlement of the legal status of the Russian language in the Russian Em-pire. Applicants for the positions of volost, aul and kishlak rulers, which were elective, were required to pass an exam on Russian language knowledge the prior to the ballot. Failure in the exam would immediately disqualify the candidate from further electoral process. The second important direction of expanding the influence of the Rus-sian language in the Steppe Territory was the educational policy related to the formation of a secular school edu-cation system and the mandatory inclusion of the Russian language course into the educational process. A net-work of Russian-Kyrgyz, Russian-aul, and missionary schools, Cyrillic-based alphabets for regional languages, educational-methodological literature in Russian were created in the region. The Russian language course be-came compulsory in programs of Muslim metebas and madrassas to raise the effectiveness of the Russification policy. Until the end of the imperial period, regional authorities failed to form a staff of ethnic officials who could speak Russian. The level of knowledge of the Russian language in the rest of the indigenous population remained extremely low, which was due to unpopularity of the Russian school system. Thus, it can be stated that the poten-tial of the Russian language as a means of integration into the common empire space was not fully utilized. At the same time, it cannot be denied, that Russian culture, historically close to Muslim peoples of the Central Asian region, embodied in the imperial educational system, played a positive role, acting as a conductor of their in-volvement in the achievements of European civilization.

This article is devoted to the study of the archaeological excavations materials carried out by L. N. Sladkova in 1998, in the upper part of the Tobolsk city, on the territory of Neudachin’s estate (the intersection of modern Oktyabrskaya St. and Academician Yuri Osipov St.). The objects of the study were numerous fragments of porcelain and earthenware products found during excavations. In this research, there was an attempt to determine the place and time of manufacture of porcelain and earthenware products, guided primarily by the information on the manufacturer’s stamps. The publication provided statistical data concerning the species of the discovered artifacts, the material from which they were made, as well as options for their decoration. All the discovered porcelain and earthenware products could be divided by time into items made in Soviet times and in the pre-revolutionary period. In addition, attention was paid to the place of production of fi nds, some information about the porcelain and earthenware products manufacturers was provided. Soviet porcelain and earthenware table- ware of the USSR, apparently, was connected with the orphanage located there at that time, which, taking into account the war and post-war time, could not be provided with any expensive goods. But if we talk about the late 19 th — early 20th century, the situation was probably completely different. Apparently, this place, located not far from the Kremlin, was inhabited by people who occupied a fairly high posi- tion in the society and had the opportunity to surround themselves with expensive imported things, in- cluding dishes of the highest quality. The rank of the owner of Neudachin, who was a valid state councilor, speaks of his high property and social status. This is confirmed by the finds of imported items. It can be assumed that the urban elite lived here at an earlier time. The finds, previously attributed to Chinese and European porcelain, indicate that people with a high level of income lived on the estate.

The article is dedicated to the palace of Marshal TarkhanMouravi or “Marshliant Sasahle” in the village of Garikula, which belonged to the direct descendants of the last Georgian kings Heraclius II and George XII. The building was erected in the late 18th — early 19th centuries and was decorated with mirrored mihrabs, muqarnas and mosaics, as well as oriental paintings that were created by Persian artists in Persian and Chinese traditions. The decoration of this building was completed around the 1830–1840s. History has not preserved the names of the artists since, in the Soviet times, one of the members of the Tarkhan-Mouravi family Catherine had to burn the entire family archive to protect the life of her descendants. She also applied to rector of Apollon Kutateladze Tbilisi State Academy of Arts with a request to obtain the right to manage the nationalized estate, which was mercilessly damaged during the Soviet regime, and even the mirror decoration was cut with axes.

The subject of the article is the application of the concept of the form of state in the Soviet historical and legal science.The purpose of the research is to confirm or disprove the hypothesis that the understanding of the form of the state in the Soviet history of law was not discrete, it changed under the influence of political transformations and had a significant impact on the modern theory of the state.The methodology. The method of periodization was used to highlight the Soviet period of historical and legal science, the chronological method was used to determine the upper and lower boundaries of the Soviet period. The narrative method made it possible to describe the historiographic process. The historical-comparative method was required to compare individual concepts.Results, scope of application. The concept of the form of the state that was used in the historical and legal science of the Soviet period has been determined. The form of the state in Soviet science included two elements initially: the form of government and the form of statehood. The third element has been added since the 1960s – the political regime. The institutionalization of the history of state and law as a science took place by the end of the 1940s. While historians of the old school were working, the main topics included the early stages of the development of the state. Then after the change of generations the priority place was taken by the problems of the Soviet state. By the end of the Soviet period a more harmonious allocation of topics had developed. In Soviet historical and legal science the form of the state of the pre-revolutionary and Soviet periods was considered separately. The form of government of the Russian state in the pre-revolutionary period was defined as a monarchy. Several types of monarchy were distinguished: early feudal, estate-representative, absolute. The republican form of government was recognized for the Soviet state. Its class and social essence changed with the development of socialism. Organizational forms changed accordingly. When studying the polity, the main attention was paid to the federation. Its complex origin was noted, because the Russian Federation (RSFSR) was part of the federation of the USSR. The Soviet federations were built according to the nationalterritorial principle. The issue of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation remained debatable. Most researchers considered the RSFSR a state with autonomous entities. The development of the territory of the state as a whole has hardly been studied. Major administrative-territorial reforms carried out in the 1920s-1930s were considered in isolation from national-territorial construction. Generalized works on the territorial development of the state appeared only at the end of the Soviet period. Issues of the political regime of the feudal and bourgeois state were addressed in the study of direct democracy in the ancient Russian state, estate representative bodies, state power during the period of absolutism. Political liberalization was noted during the bourgeois reforms of the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries. The democratic nature of the Soviet political regime was not questioned, therefore, the problems indicating trouble, crisis phenomena in the Soviet state were not identified.Conclusions. The understanding of elements of form of the state in the Soviet history of law was expanding. It changed in accordance with the changes in the Soviet governance. The main approaches to understanding the form of the state are accepted by contemporary Russian science.

The study of regional aspects of crime in the pre-revolutionary period allows us to form a holistic view on the development of such socially dangerous criminal phenomenon as professional crime in Russia. Recent changes in Russian criminal law (2019–20), that are to protect the society from professional crime, have made studying the issue more significant. There is a gap in scientific knowledge of regional aspects of professional crime of the past. The scholarship either addresses the issue on the large scale (that of Russia as a whole), or focuses on big cities (Moscow, St. Petersburg). The article presents an analysis of the formation and development of professional crime based on the materials from the State Archive of the Kursk Region (fond 32 of the Kursk district court), reflecting the development of ordinary crime in the Kursk gubernia in the second half of the 19th – early 20th century. The choice of territorial framework is due to the fact that the Kursk gubernia was a typical region of the European part of Russia in the specified time period. There is little research on the topic, and most archival materials have been studied and introduced into scientific use for the first time. A whole complex of criminal cases considered by the Kursk district court (criminal division) in the second half of the 19th – early 20th century has been identified and analyzed. Methodological basis of the research is analysis and generalization of special literature and scientific publications; study of archival materials using historical-comparative, historical-genetic, and historical- systematic methods. It has been concluded that professional crime in the Kursk gubernia in the second half of the 19th – early 20th century was focused on agriculture, since the region's economy had a pronounced agricultural specificity. The most popular criminal craft was horse theft; it was pursued in organized groups, where all roles were distributed among the gang robbers. Often they were assisted by horsedealers who were their only channel for selling stolen horses. There also were cases of counterfeiting, theft of hand luggage and clothing, and group theft in form of robbery (pickpocketing and brigandage were less common). Pickpockets had in their stock in trade for committing theft. They had special knowledge and practice-oriented skills for stealing money and other values from hand luggage or clothing of their victims and for avoiding criminal prosecution. The authors’ conclusions broaden our knowledge on the issue and are of interest to historians, lawyers, and sociologists.

The chapter analyses the interaction of modern Tajik and its dialects with a group of so-called Pamir languages in the Mountainous Badakhshan Autonomous Region of Tajikistan, where the population speaks various Iranian vernaculars of Eastern and Western Iranian origin. In the early medieval period this area was strongly influenced by the Persian language - the language of administration, culture and science. Tajik is closely related to Persian; it evolved along with modern Persian and Afghan Dari through the shared cultural background and language of the classical literature of the 10th-15th centuries. During the second millennium, the Persian-Tajik language attained a high status throughout Central Asia, and by the early 20th century, it became the official state language of the Republic of Tajikistan. In modern Tajikistan the Western Iranian Tajik language - the state language - is present in written and oral forms; various heritage Eastern Iranian languages, the Yaghnobi language as well as the group of Pamir languages are spoken there, none of which has a written tradition. This study provides an overview of the sociolinguistic situation in the Mountainous Badakhshan Autonomous Region. It discusses the areal stratification of the continuum of Tajik dialects and the interaction of these dialects with the group of Pamir languages, in particular Shughnani. The research further highlights issues arising from these contacts, in particular concerning vocabulary and word formation.

In the pre-revolutionary period, parochial schools were a special stage in the educational system of the Russian Empire. The active work of the Russian Orthodox Church laid the foundation for the enlightenment of the northern peripheries of the Russian Empire. The article focuses on the peculiarities of the organization of primary education in schools of the Kola District of the Arkhangelsk Region in the 19th - early 20th centuries. The article is based on the analysis of the documents of the Kola District School Department, which are kept in the State Archives of the Murmansk Region (fund I-133) and the documents of the Kem’-Kola District School Department, which are represented in the National Archives of the Republic of Karelia (fund 419). These documents include teachers' reports on the progress of studies, correspondence between the School Board and village administrators regarding the organization of schooling, the supply of books to schools, lists of learning aids for teaching in parochial elementary schools, annual reports on the progress of students, as well as reports of inspectors and supervisors on the work of parochial schools. It demonstrates that the main difficulties in the organization of education in the North were: the dependence of the study cycle on the seasonal economic calendar of the population, the ignorance of the indigenous (Sámi) population of the Russian language, and the low interest of the students in receiving a certificate of completion of the course which entitled them to IV grade military service exemption. The article reviews the content of school educational programmers and peculiarities of educational process in elementary parochial schools of the Kola North in 19th - early 20th centuries. A conclusion is made that education in parochial schools had a practical value.

The article considers a set of issues related to the process of spreading the Russian language in Ossetia in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries, among which the problem of the native language occupied a central place as it was on the periphery of the educational activities of the local elementary school. The article based on a wide range of diverse sources, including legislative acts, with the primary use of materials from newspaper periodicals of the early 20th century, published in the Terek region. An analysis of documentary materials showed that the spread of the Russian language in the North Caucasian outskirts and its linguistic “Russification” was provided with legal support due to its immanent significance as a marker of Russian statehood. The main attention in the article is paid to the analysis of the journalistic discourse of early 20th century formed in Ossetia relatively the position of the Ossetian language in elementary school, which was assigned the functions of an auxiliary tool for mastering the Russian language. The main ideas and provisions expressed by representatives of the Ossetian intelligentsia and reflected in the pages of the regional periodical press are considered. Pedagogical authorities recognized in Ossetia, writers and public figures spoke out in defense of the native language, which faced the threat of complete oblivion on the peripheryof educational work and lost its original functions of a folk educator and teacher. Recognizing the objectivity of the factors that determined the secondary status of the Ossetian language (the absence for a long time of textbooks, teaching aids and methodological materials for Ossetian schools, etc.), publicists came out with demands for the translation of primary education into the native language of pupils, which were supported by the highest Caucasian administration. At the same time, the advanced Ossetian public recognized the historical conditionality of the need for the mountaineers to master the Russian language space as a factor that softens the painful process of adaptation to new realities and ensures movement towards a civil universe. The preservation of the native language as the core of the national culture along this path was perceived as a moral duty of the intelligentsia, an imperative of its creative activity.

The article deals with the nature of land ownership in Dagestan in the 19th - early 20th centuries. Estate and land relations, land and legal problems were the most complex in the socio-economic development of the pre-revolutionary Dagestan. Russian authorities paid much attention to their solution. After joining to Russia, several estate and land commissions were formed and they collected a large amount of material on the estate and land relations in Dagestan. The article covers the forms of land ownership in the 19th - early 20th centuries. There were communal, waqf (i.e. mosque) lands, state and private lands. The latter were divided into large feudal landownership and peasant landownership - myulks. Pastures were in communal ownership and plowing and hay fields belonged to myulks. On the plain, land ownership was communal. State-owned lands in Dagestan appeared due to confiscation of lands from anti-Russian feudal lords and due to the lands of rural societies as well. Waqf lands were those bequeathed to the mosque. Much attention is paid in the article to redistribution of land ownership, when lands passed from one owner to another. There were several great redistributions of lands in Dagestan. The first of them occurred in the 18th century when the feudal lords, in the course of rise of their political and economic power, began to seize peasant lands on the Kumyk plane. By the end of the 18th century all the lands were in the hands of ten princely families. The second great redistribution of lands in Dagestan took place in the 1860s when after the agrarian reform half of the feudal lords’ lands on the plain and in the foothills passed to the emancipated peasants. Rise and development of capitalist relations were accompanied by the growth of extra estate land ownership. Feudal lords actively pawned their lands and gave them to representatives of other estates, in particular, to rich uzdens. Thus, in the late 19th - early 20th centuries there was another redistribution of lands in Dagestan. Considerable changes in the sphere of land ownership occurred in Soviet times.

The article examines the stages of the formation of historiography devoted to the problems of confessional conversions in the second half of the 19th century on the territory of the Belarusian provinces. The historiographic trends that formed from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 21st century were identified and analysed. The authour studies the peculiarities of Belarusian and foreign historiography at the present stage, when a large number of works on religious issues has appeared, including confessional conversions. It is argued that in Soviet times, the issue of transitions from Catholicism to Orthodoxy was practically not touched upon. In their approaches and assessments, some researchers continue the traditions of pre-revolutionary historiography, but the majority of modern scientists strive to give an objective picture of religious processes on the Belarusian lands, to show them in the context of general state policy. The relevance of the article is due to the coverage of various points of view on the problem of confessional conversions. It is noted that pre-revolutionary researchers, first of all, sought to prove the voluntariness of conversions to Orthodoxy, but during this period, works were also created in which this thesis was questioned.

The Muslim population of Siberia represented an ethnically heterogeneous community, which included Tatars, as well as immigrants from Central and Central Asia, the Caucasus and other regions. Such polyethnicity and proximity to the Asian region, as one of the centers of Muslim culture, contributed to building contacts between Muslims of Siberia and Central Asia. Expansion of the territorial borders of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century. and the government’s special interest in Central Asia has influenced the development of relations between the Muslim population of the two neighboring regions. The purpose of this study was to identify the main areas of interaction between the Muslim population of Siberia and Central Asia in the second half of the 19th – early 20th century, as well as to estimate the role of the state in regulating this process. Based on archival material, the author found that one of the areas of interaction of the Muslim population was organizing spiritual life. Despite the fact that the government, in an effort to extend its influence to the Asian region, provided support to the Muslim population in the second half of the 19th century, the same building codes were applied to the construction of religious buildings for Bukharans, as for all other Muslims. The closest contacts between the Muslims of Siberia and the Bukharians were built within the framework of pilgrimage trips, since often the way to Mecca for them lay through the territories of Central Asia. In addition, there were holy places in the region, which the Muslims of Siberia aspired to. This fact was of particular concern to the Government. The reforms initiated in the country aimed at limitation of the rights of the Muslim population have reduced the migration flow from the Asian region to Siberia. The government paid special attention to the missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church as a tool for involving Muslims of Siberia and Central Asia in the socio-cultural space of the empire.

Due to the establishment of the legal institute of reference offices on creditworthiness in the Russian Empire, entrepreneurs had the opportunity to order a certificate of creditworthiness of a potential counterparty; however, for objective reasons, this method was quite long in time. The information reflected in the certificate was confidential. The 19th – the early 20th centuries’Russia lacked the unified state public register of information characterising the financial reliability of trade turnover participants. The author investigates publicly available sources of obtaining data on the creditworthiness of the counterparty, the pre-revolutionary period merchants and industrialists could use to make a decision on concluding a contract, including with the terms of a credit transaction. The publicly available information on the creditworthiness of clients in the Russian Empire is information collected and stored in reference offices on creditworthiness, provided by the latter in various formats to interested parties. The article examines the methods of providing entrepreneurs with information borrowed from foreign practice and used in Russian trade. An important source of acquiring information about creditworthiness was data obtained from mass media. At the same time, the risks of the reliability of this information were assumed by the person using this information. When writing the article, the author studied a large array of periodicals, used scientific works of scientists of the pre-revolutionary period, and also studied archival documents, some of which had not been studied in the legal doctrine before.

The article is devoted to the study of the university schools of Ukraine that developed issues of credit and finance of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th – early 20th century in the pre-revolutionary period. Its purpose is to determine the main scientific achievements of the Kyiv, Kharkiv and Odessa schools of financial law in studying the credit and financial system of the Russian Empire (1861–1914) by establishing the features of pre-revolutionary Ukrainian historiography, identifying the characteristics of each of these scientific schools, and identifying their representatives. The relevance of the article is determined by studying the scientific heritage of the most progressive schools of financial law, whose representatives not only participated in legislative activities (preparation of draft legislative acts on the implementation of the foreclosure operation, financial reform of 1895–1897, in the field of small loans), were part of the collegial management bodies largest banks, but also put forward original ideas of both practical and theoretical nature. Many proposals of Ukrainian economists formed the basis for new areas of economic thought (M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky is one of the founder of institutionalism). Their legacy can be applied in solving modern strategic tasks of the state. The novelty of the study is determined by the fact that for the first time systematized the ideas of Ukrainian schools of economists regarding credit and finance of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th – early 20th century. The characteristic features of the Kyiv scientific school (status representatives, progressive ideas, contribution to the development of institutionalism), Kharkiv school (popularization of the ideas of credit cooperation, conducting scientific seminars on pressing economic issues) and Odessa school (criticism of banks, their classification) are determined. The most common topics for research are noted, prominent representatives are listed.

The article analyzes the conditions that arose for the creation of the museum as a result of the first scientific expeditions to the Surkhandarya oasis in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. The influence of socio-political changes, the activation of scientific expeditions, and cultural and educational movements will be studied. It is shown that interest in studying the rich historical heritage of the Surkhandarya region laid the foundation for the development of museology.

The research object is church singing of the Kryashens (baptized Tatars), a sub-ethnic community of the Tatars following Eastern Christianity. The Kryashens are the bearers of a unique Orthodox singing tradition combining church chants and prayer texts in the Tatar language. The research subject is the historical background of church singing of baptized Tatars which inhabited the Laish and Mamadysh districts of Kazan province. The chronological framework covers the period of generation of the tradition - the late 19th - the early 20th century, which was the period of active missionary efforts of the Russian Orthodox church in the region. The author uses the historical, culturological and source study methods which help to detect the ways of formation of the singing tradition: they are connected with the introduction of a new system of religious and school education of “aliens” in the region, and the start of holding church services in the Tatar language. The research contains the information about the work of schools for the baptized Tatars and parishes in the late 19th - the early 20th century. The author evaluates the modern condition of the Kryashens’ Orthodox singing tradition in the region under consideration and detects the prerequisites of its development which had been established by missionaries in the pre-revolutionary period. The author arrives at a conclusion about an important role of music in the process of christian education of the baptized Tatars, and about significant contribution of the pre-revolutionary missionaries to the formation of spiritual and singing practice of the ethnos, which is currently an important component of its music culture. This ethno-regional tradition of Orthodox singing is considered in Russian musicology for the first time.