Ræstar hugleiðingar - upprunin til sagnorðið 'ræsa'

Polish collocations, the author discusses synonymic relations between the well-established collocations and single-word synonyms known as synthetic that correspond them. Most attention has been paid to verb-noun collocations which can often be replaced by a single word, or a verb. This linguistic material is ideal to deal with semantic and stylistic equivalence / identity and morphological relationship between a combination of words and a single-lexeme synonym as well as collocations of a given language that lack their single-word synonyms. The paper also highlights complex collocation-word relations in terms of translation if two different language systems are contrasted. Thus, the author cites certain pairs of Russian collocations and their Polish singleword synonyms that have been abstracted in the lexicographical studies. Besides verb-nominal collocations, the paper discusses some examples of attributive and adverbial collocations and the possibility of replacing them by a single word.

The Effects of Using Images and Video Clips for Vocabulary Learning: Single Words vs. Phrasal verbs

The article addresses the questions of geographical names’ interpretation and the difficulties which may occur while working with them, due to various linguistic origins and changes in language and culture which have caused the original meaning to be lost. Some important points in geographical names’ interpretation are revealed, that is important in the work with texts in Britain country studying course. The purpose of the article is to review some features of interpretation of place names that may occur when working with country studies course texts. Geographical names like proper names are the phenomena, which draw scientific interest due to the specifics of their formation and functioning in the language. The system of proper names as a result of centuries of nomination is known to be a set of various onomastic models, whose origin is primarily associated with extralinguistic factors, such as ancient traditions and customs of nomination, primordial cults and ideas, different ethno-cultural processes that occurred in the history of the community. It is not by mere chance that scholars consider the formation of proper names as a variety of coding historical and cultural information. Some of the main problems of interpretation of geographical names are as follows: 1) the inability to track the language of origin of the name; for example, some names may be equally of Old English or of Celtic origin. 2) the difference in the word order in the name: in the Germanic languages, and thus in Old English and Old Norse, the substantive is often preceded by its modifier, such as north - Norwich - (Norfolk). Celtic names are characterised by a reverse word order, where the first element is a notion that is described (hill, valley, farm, etc.) such as settlement of the Cuebris - Tregonebris (Cornwall) Mouth of the Dee Aberdeen (Scotland). 3) lost meaning: the interpretation of certain place names can be difficult if the motivation of the name is no longer obvious. For example, the city of Whichford (Warwickshire) - of Hwicce (an Anglo-Saxon kingdom during the Heptarchy), but the location of this ford was lost. 4) polysemantic words: some elements of the names, such as suffixes wich and wick, can have many meanings. Generally suffixes wich / wick / wyke denote a farm or settlement, for example Keswick (Cumbria) cheese farm. However, some of the names are of Roman or early post-Roman origin. In this case, wich is a Latin word vicus city, and the city itself seems to have been a trading point. On the coastline, the suffix wick is often interpreted by the Scandinavian origin, meaning bay or entance (Lerwick (Scotland)). All these factors must be taken into consideration when interpreting place names, which is very important when working with text in the course of British studies. Geographical names, of course, have a stable correspondence in all the world languages (which is conditioned primarily by geographic and cartographic needs), but the associations connected with some objects are part of the national culture and sometimes may be unknown outside it. Further research may deepen the study of proper names interpretation and help to use of the obtained information in the course of British studies

Background: Verb Network Strengthening Treatment (VNeST) is a semantic treatment that aims to improve lexical retrieval of content words in sentence context by promoting systematic retrieval of verbs (e.g., measure) and their thematic roles—i.e., agent (doer of the action, e.g., carpenter, chef) and patient (receiver of the action, e.g., lumber, sugar). VNeST is influenced by Loverso and colleagues (e.g., Loverso, Selinger, & Prescott, 1979) who used “verb as core” treatment to improve sentence production with encouraging results, and McRae and colleagues who showed that verbs prime typical agents (e.g., pray–nun) and patients (arrest–criminal) (Ferretti, McRae, & Hatherell, 2001) and vice‐versa (McRae, Hare, Elman, & Ferretti, 2005). Aims: There are four specific questions in this study. Does training a set of verbs using VNeST generalise to the ability to produce (1) an agent (carpenter), trained verb (measure), and patient (stairs) in response to novel picture stimuli and (2) an agent (nurse), untrained semantically related verb (weigh), and patient (baby) in response to novel picture stimuli? (3) Are generalisation effects maintained? (4) Does VNeST generalise to the ability to retrieve nouns and verbs not directly related to treatment items in single word naming, picture description, and connected speech tasks? Methods & Procedures: Four participants with aphasia participated. Participants received VNeST, which involves retrieval of agent–patient pairs (e.g., chef/sugar, surveyor/land) related to trained verbs (e.g., measure), twice per week. A single‐participant, repeated probe, multiple baseline experimental design was used. Generalisation to sentence production for sentences containing trained verbs and untrained semantically related verbs was tested weekly. Outcomes & Results: Results demonstrated generalisation to lexical retrieval of content words in sentences with trained and untrained verbs across participants. Additionally, pre‐ to post‐treatment generalisation was observed on single verb and noun naming and lexical retrieval in sentences across a variety of tasks across participants. Generalisation to connected speech was observed for three of four participants. Conclusions: Although preliminary, these results indicate that VNeST may be effective in promoting generalisation from single word naming to connected speech in persons with moderate aphasia. A number of clinical implications related to treatment efficiency are discussed. The authors would first like to thank the four individuals who participated in this study. Additional thanks go Laura K. Allred for creating the artwork for developed stimuli, and Michela Palmieri and Adam Jacks for assistance with reliability.

Lexically-driven syntactic priming

Regarding the linguistic origin, Genesis claims that ancient languages were divinely created and diversified. In consistence, this testimony presents systematic evidence of biblical etymology related to tabernacle and altar in numerous words. The biblical etymology of time and season is also presented. These support a crucial discovery in human civilization that Bible is the definitive dictionary of etymology for languages.

Effects of Morphology on Children's Spelling of Final Consonant Clusters

How do children resolve the problem of indeterminacy when learning a new word? By one account, children adopt a taxonomic assumption and expect the word to denote only members of a particular taxonomic category. According to one version of this constraint, young children should represent polysemous words that label multiple kinds—for example, chicken, which labels an animal and its meat—as separate and unrelated words that each encode a single kind. Our studies provide evidence against this account: we show that four- and five-year-old children spontaneously expect that a word that has labeled one meaning of a familiar polysemous word will also label its other, taxonomically different meaning. Further, we show that children's taxonomic flexibility is importantly constrained—children do not expect a word to label thematically-related meanings (e.g., chicken and egg), or the unrelated meanings of homophones (e.g., bat[animal] and bat[baseball]). We argue that although children are initially guided by the taxonomic constraint when pairing word forms with meanings, they nonetheless relate the taxonomically-different meanings of polysemous words within lexical structure. Thus, for even young children, a single word can label multiple kinds.

Previous research has suggested that speech perception in elderly adults is influenced not only by age-related hearing loss or presbycusis but also by declines in cognitive abilities, by background noise and by the syntactic complexity of the message. To gain further insight into the influence of these cognitive as well as acoustic and linguistic factors on speech perception in elderly adults by investigating inhibitory control as a listener characteristic and background noise type and syntactic complexity as input characteristics. Phoneme identification was measured in different noise conditions and in different linguistic contexts (single words, sentences with varying syntactic complexity). Additionally, inhibitory control was measured using a visual stimulus-response matching task. Fifty-one adults participated in this study, including elderly adults with age-related hearing loss (n = 9) and with normal hearing (n = 17), and a control group of normal hearing younger adults (n = 25). The analysis revealed that elderly adults with normal hearing and with hearing loss were less likely to identify successfully phonemes in single words than younger normal hearing controls. In the context of sentences, only elderly adults with hearing loss had a lower odds of correct phoneme perception than the control group. Additionally, in elderly adults with hearing loss, phoneme-in-sentence perception was linked to age-related declines in inhibitory control. In all participants, phoneme identification in sentences was influenced by both noise type and syntactic complexity. Inhibitory control and syntactic complexity might play a significant role in speech perception, especially in elderly listeners. These factors might also influence the results of clinical assessments of speech perception. Testing procedures thus need to be selected and their results interpreted carefully with these influences in mind.

The ability to recognize speech depends on several factors, including the quality of the auditory input, linguistic context, and the listener’s cognitive abilities. These factors correlate with speech recognition, but less consideration has been given to how these factors interact. Here, we present evidence from two studies indicating that interactions exist between quality, context, and short-term memory. In study one, we demonstrate that contextual expectations across stimulus sets can determine the relationship between auditory quality and short-term memory. Specifically, recall of lists of digits is not affected by noise-band vocoding, whereas vocoding impairs both item identification and recall for lists of single syllable words drawn from a large, untrained set. In study two, we demonstrate that correlations between digit list recall and PRESTO sentence recognition are strongest when auditory quality is poor, whereas correlations between digit and word list recall weaken with decreasing auditory quality. This finding suggests that auditory quality and semantic context moderate the relationship between memory and speech recognition. We conclude that incorporating experimental measures of auditory quality, short-term memory, and recognition of speech materials with different contexts will provide a clearer perspective on how these factors relate to speech recognition in listeners with hearing loss.The ability to recognize speech depends on several factors, including the quality of the auditory input, linguistic context, and the listener’s cognitive abilities. These factors correlate with speech recognition, but less consideration has been given to how these factors interact. Here, we present evidence from two studies indicating that interactions exist between quality, context, and short-term memory. In study one, we demonstrate that contextual expectations across stimulus sets can determine the relationship between auditory quality and short-term memory. Specifically, recall of lists of digits is not affected by noise-band vocoding, whereas vocoding impairs both item identification and recall for lists of single syllable words drawn from a large, untrained set. In study two, we demonstrate that correlations between digit list recall and PRESTO sentence recognition are strongest when auditory quality is poor, whereas correlations between digit and word list recall weaken with decreasing auditory qua...

Carey and Bartlett introduced a new method for studying lexical development, one of presenting the child with a word and a single context of use and asking what was learned from that one encounter. They also reported a then new finding; that is, by using what they already knew about previously learned words, young children could narrow the range of possibilities for likely meanings in a single encounter. This papers honors that original contribution and the robust literature and set of phenomena it generated by considering how newly learned categories must fit into a population of already learned categories. This paper presents an overview of Packing Theory, a formal geometrical analysis of how local interactions in a large population of categories create a global structure of feature relevance such that near categories in the population of have similar generalization patterns. The implications of these ideas for learning from a single encounter, their relation to the evidence of artificial word learning studies, and new predictions are discussed.

This study examines the relationship between age of immersion (AOI) and the degree of perceived accent (DPA) that raters who speak native English perceive in the speech of Mandarin speakers who learned English as a second language. AOI and speech samples of variable length and linguistic context (single words, sentences, short paragraph, and self-generated picture narration) were collected from the target group (n=32, AOI=3–16) and from native speaker controls. A moderately trained native speaker panel of college students then rated the samples on how “native” they sounded using a continuous scale. Rating was broken over three separate sessions to relieve fatigue, and a reliability measure was administered at the onset and termination of each session to ensure consistency. Reliable performance was demonstrated both across judges and across sessions and indicated no single AOI demarcated a “critical period.” Instead, DPA was found to deviate from native in a highly linear manner with AOI, as did speakers' tendencies to noticeably deflect from this line. These deviations began at an AOI of about 5, although some speakers bottomed out with an AOI as early as 7, whereas nearly native ratings were given to others whose AOI was greater than 5. Females were rated as more native and variably accented than males. Ratings of native decreased with sampling length but increased with extemporization, the effect of AOI on DPA being similar for all sampling types.

Ladun is considered one of the difficult adverbs to be used by many researchers because it can be used as an adverb of time and place according to the Linguistic context in which it comes. It (Ladun) is used in the present study in two sections; the first section is devoted to its use in Arabic Language. Ladun was found to be linked to time and place indications, and what comes after is parsed verbally in a single word. While if it is a verbal or nominal sentence, it will be parsed according to location. It is also used with (ghadwa) in a special use as mentioned at as (Sibawaih) as well as its use with (shola). The second section deals with its linguistic structure and pronunciation according to the ten languages proven by the grammarian. The research concluded that there is a difference between Ladun on the one hand and (lada ) and ( inda ) on the other hand which have the same usage as the word Ladun . The difference is that the first one does not come but only as an addition, while the two others ones come as an addition and they can stand by themselves well provided that the accents in which the letter (ن) Noon comes fixed are more than the accents in which it is deleted, and the reason behind its different readings is due to the numerous accents.

College English Lexical Learning Dependent on Context

This study examined the relationship between Age of Immersion (AOI) and the Degree of Phonological Accent (DPA) that native-English-speaking judges perceived in the speech of Mandarin speakers who learned English as a second language. AOI and speech samples of variable length and linguistic context (single words, sentences, a short paragraph, and a self-generated picture narration) were collected from the target group (n=32, AOI=3–16) and from native speaker controls (n=4, AOI=0). These were judged by a native speaker panel (n=14) using a continuous scale, along with measurements of confidence. Judging was broken over 3 separate visits. A set of similar samples and speakers was repeated at the onset and termination of the main rating task of each visit to ensure reliability. No single AOI was found for a ‘‘Critical Period’’ (CP). Instead, DPA was found to increase in a highly linear manner with AOI. In general, ratings of DPA began to increase at about AOI=5, maxing out as early as AOI=7, although near-native ratings were given to some speakers whose AOI was greater than 5, especially in the case of female speakers. Thus DPA can be linearly predicted with AOI, though individual speakers are fairly variable after AOI=5.